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ilnglish Words with Native Roots

and with Greek, Latin, or

Romance Suffixes

By
GEORGE A. NICHOLSON

LINGUISTIC STUDIES IN GERMANIC

Edited by FRANCIS A. WOOD

NO. in

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Agents

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY, New York

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, London and Edinburgh

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KARL W. HIERSEMANN, Leipzig

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 with funding from

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English Words with Native Roots

and with Greek, Latin, or

Romance Suffixes

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON AND EDINBUSGH

THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA

TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO

KARL W. HIERSEMANN

LEIPZIG

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY

NEW YOEK

English Words with Native Roots

and with Greek, Latin, or

Romance Suffixes

By
GEORGE A. NICHOLSON

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Copyright 1916 By
The University of Chicago

All Rights Reserved

Published February 191 6

Composed and Printed By

The University of Chicago Press

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

SECTION I

INTRODUCTORY

The following study concerns itself with an interesting by-phase
of English linguistic history. My primary aim is to present the
material in conveniently classified form. The discussion of the
phenomena so presented is not exhaustive. On the contrary, it is
merely introductory and suggestive.

Practically every writer on the history of the English language has
mentioned the fact that English, vastly more than any other tongue,
has added foreign suffixes to native words. Even the authors of
grammars for secondary schools comment on this. I have not found,
however, an adequate collection of the material in respect either
to a full word-list or to an approximately complete enumeration of
the suffixes involved. The usual procedure is to mention from eight
to twenty suffixes with not more than seventy illustrative words.
Manifestly the subject is worthy of a fuller treatment than it has
received.

Hybrid words, objects of puristic scorn, hold an important place
in spoken and written language today. Literally hundreds of them
which as yet have not been corralled in the lexicons are used
constantly in conversation, in the newspapers, and in magazines. I
noticed not less than seventy-five during the months I was pre-
paring this dissertation. A bootblack is a " shineologist " ; a heavy
baseball batter is a '^sluggist"; a newspaper column reserved for
violent crime is the ''murderology'^ section; the pronunciation of
New Yorkers is ''New Yorkese"; every man locally important
enough to promulgate an individual doctrine or cult has his thoughts
described by an -ism attached to his name, while his adherents bear
his name plus an -ist or an -ite. Once the attention is called to this
matter one is astonished at the absolute freedom with which the
man in the street no less than his sophisticated fellow in the news-
paper office attaches any suffix whatever to any word, slang or
erudite, which he happens to use at the moment. Practically all of
\ this is unconscious. Few who thus coin words reahze that they are

031866

2 : EKGLiSH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

doing so. Analogy guides them — sometimes rightly, sometimes
into curious combinations.

This process, more noticeable now than ever, because few, even
of those who write the better-class matter, are able to separate their
vocabulary into its native, its adopted Germanic, its Romance, its
Latin, and its Greek elements, has a long and rather consistent his-
tory. Beginning in the thirteenth century, the hybridizing move-
ment has always held its own or made advancement except during
the overcorrect eighteenth century. Many of its products have been
of little service. They lie buried in the lexicons, bearing such
epitaphs as ^'rare," *' obsolete," "nonce word," ''humorous,"
"fantastic." Many others, however, carry an important part of
the burden of human communication. ''Shipment," "settlement,"
"betterment," "freightage," "murderous," "starvation," the large
list in -able, and literally hundreds of others illustrate well the
usefulness of the hybrid form.

I am not an attorney for the hybrid word. My subject does
not require me to defend this useful though much-maligned agent.
However, as a matter of personal interest, I noted the authors of
many of the quotations in the New English Dictionary, and inasmuch
as the use of hybrids is still an occasional subject of controversy,
I am justified, I think, in offering the following list of hybrids which
have been employed by writers of high rank. The list is not quite
complete, even for the examples which chance to be cited in the
dictionary, nor does it include the rather large class of hybrids formed
by a proper name plus a foreign suffix.

Wyclif: holet; niggard; breakeress, chooseress, leaperess,
neighbouress, singeress, sinneress, slayeress, teacheress, thralless;
corsery (barter), husbandry; onement; believable, loveable, over-
trowable, sellable.

Chaucer: dotard; goddess, herdess, huntress; squeamous;
dotage; goldsmithery, husbandry; eggment (incitement).

Shakespere: droplet; wafture; murderous; sluggardize; fishify;
stowage, waftage; husbandry, knavery, stitchery; fitment, fleshment,
merriment, rabblement.

Ben Jonson: mannet ; punquette ; sinewize ; snottery ; matchable.

Sidney: murderous; womanize.

AND WITH GKEEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 3

Nashe: doltage; clownery, slabbery, snudgery; dreariment,
dribblement, enfoldment, fosterment, merriment; nittify.

Milton: thunderous; witticism; freightage, hucksterage, stow-
age; goosery, pettyfoggery, wagonry; enthrallment, jabberment.

Spenser: dreariment, gazement, needment, rabblement, wari-
ment.

De Foe: settlement; eatable, shapeable; higglery, thievery,
tinnery.

Goldsmith: murderous; timeist.

Addison: stowage; whimsical; witticism.

Dryden: laughable; dastardize; whiggism; niggard.

Pope: ringlet; thunderous; flirtation; talkative, writeative.

H. Walpole: muddify; writeability; laddess.

Richardson: dastardize; doggess, fellowess, keeperess; flustera-
tion, flutteration, mutteration, titteration.

Scott: gullible, quenchable, wearable; merriment, settlement;
thirlage; guildry, oldwomanry, sculduddery, trashery; springlet;
norlandism; whimsical; harpess, punstress, thaness; gumption; lag-
gard, lubbard; nacket.

Fanny Burney: writeable; oddment, sunderment; grubbery;
uglify; fellowess, gamestress; frettation, fussation.

Wordsworth: enthrallment, needment: witchery; songstress.

Southey: mynheerify, quizzify; get-at-able, humbuggable, kiss-
able, likable, smuggleable; roguery, weedery; nightingaleize;
dovelet, feather let, kneelet; murderess; eatability, Ukability.

Coleridge: cloudlet; frightenable, worshipable; embitterment,
embreastment; claptrappery, greenery, leggery, moonery, parrotry,
roguery; friendism, nothingism; shallowist; deathify; cloudage,
houseage; punlet, toadlet; saleability, worshipability.

Lamb: fishet, hornet (a small horn) ; girlery; sniggify; foldure;
coxcombess; hangability.

Keats: graspable; enthrallment; thunderous; leafet.

Dickens: washable; embowerment, settlement; dodgery, growl-
ery, henpeckery, roguery, snuggery; speechify; no-go-ism; fistic;
coxcombical; meltability.

Thackeray: gullible; grapery, raggery; middleageism; fistify,
tipsify; turfite; neighbouress, rideress, teetotaleress, writeress.

4 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

George Eliot: kickable; disheartenment, wonderment; wavelet;
thunderous; snobbism.

Irving: nookery, snuggery, waggery; drainage, ferriage.

Poe: popgunnery, rigmarolery, rookery; punnage, stowage;
dunderheadism ; rigmarolic.

Tennyson: cloudlet, rillet; learnable, unutterable; goddess.

Mrs. Browning: thunderous; singable; dimplement.

Browning: gossipry, greenery, thievery; graspable; crumble-
ment; wrappage; rillet.

Landor: eatable; witticism.

Lowell: settlement; wrappage; pufflet; freshmanic; darnation.

Carlyle: doable, drownable, forgetable, frightable, guessable,
hateable, hireable, learnable, liftable, nameable, patchable, plough-
able, quenchable, reapable, scratchable, shapeable, spellable, think-
able; dabblement, dazzlement, dizenment, mumblement, ravelment,
settlement, tattlement; cloudery, cobwebbery, croakery, doggery,
goosery, grazery, oldwifery, owlery, swinery, sloppery, swindlery,
tagraggery, thievery, whifflery; nothingize; drownage, floodage,
proppage, wrappage, wreckage; drudgical, gigmanical; oozelet,
queenlet, squeaklet; plunderous; dapperism, donothingism, drudg-
ism, flunkeyism, gigmanism, loselism, quacksalverism, scoundrelism,
owlism; gigmanic; drinkeress, gigmaness, gunneress, knavess,
playeress; quizz.abiUty.

Ruskin: cleanable, cleaveable, gatherable, ringable, shakeable,
shapeable, sayable, teachable; puzzlement; landscapist; leafage;
coxcombry.

Disraeli: readable; settlement; errandry; greenhornism,
selfism; knightess.

George Meredith: fallallery; freightage; leaflet; rillet.

Stevenson: doable, fordable, nameable; tipsify; islandry; play-
ability.

Chaucer and Wyclif among early writers; Shakespere, Nashe,
and Milton in the middle period; and Richardson, Scott, Fanny
Burney, Southey, Coleridge, Lamb, Dickens, Ruskin, and Carlyle
among modern writers are thus shown to be among the chief users
of hybrid words.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 5

An interesting study could be made by examining carefully the
works of the Romantic writers for a complete list of their hybrids.
This usage may well prove to be one of the striking evidences of the
romantic sense of freedom in language.

There is, perhaps, little reason why one should search into the
causes of this hybridizing movement. The primary cause was
the presence of a large number of Latin, Romance, and later of
Greek loan-words which speedily were assimilated to the language so
thoroughly that few of the general mass of the people could classify
accurately their own vocabulary. Yet two steps in the earlier
stages of the movement deserve notice, and perhaps a third should
be mentioned. They are: first, the passage of Saxon words into the
Latin and later the Anglo-French of the law codes; second, the
presence of a considerable number of Romance loan-words which
were of Teutonic origin and no doubt existed, in many cases at
least, in their native form in the common speech, and, third, the
fact that the earlier writers were bilingual or trilingual and so, in
the absence of any puristic conception of word formation, they would
tend to attach any of the suffixes with which they were familiar to
any given word.

The following are some of the words which passed from Old Eng-
lish through legal Latin or Anglo-French : ordalian, ordalium, alder-
manate, aldermanry, saumbury, sokemanry, outlawry, allodiary,
bondage, hidage, faldage, towage, thaneage, pricket, and hoggaster.

The following are some of the Romance loan-words, adopted
before 1600, which are of Teutonic origin:

Thirteenth century: cottage, lastage; lechery, robbery; cruet;
scabbard; hastive; franchise; burgess.

Fourteenth century: abetment, atiffement; forage, gainage,
lodemanage; baudry, buttery, guilery, harbergery; banneret, gablet,
hamlet, locket; gonfanon, marchion, rewardon; mallard, reynard;
furrure; marshalcy; lecherous; hastity; regardant.

Fifteenth century: arrayment; alnage; gainery, ravery; helmet,
gauntlet; fiancard, galbart, halbert ; braggance; bordure; marchion-
ate, minionate; hountous (shameful); graveress; hastity; guardian..

Sixteenth century: allotment, foragement, franchisement, lodge-
ment, rebutment; abordage, bankage, burgage, equippage; eschan-

6

ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

sonery, harquebusery, lottery, marquetry; brownetta; emblazure,
furniture, garniture; gallantise; gaberdine; guardant.

In addition to the foregoing catagories, one should list, perhaps,
the usage of early dictionaries. While this usage was not in a strict
sense a cause of the movement, it undoubtedly facilitated its progress.
The following words are among those which appeared in early
lexicons :

In the Prompt. Parv. (about 1440): fellowable, gropeable;
housewifery; hangment; ferriage; gleimous; dullard, dastard,
gozzard, niggard, scabbard, scallard, snivelard.

In the Cath. Angli. 1483: biteable, bowable, buyable, cleanse-
able, eatable, fillable, bearable, overcomeable, playable, seekable,
sendable, teachable, tellable; chapmanry, fleshhewery, glovery,
lemanry, midwifery.

In Cotgr. 1611 : drainable, drinkable, fishable, fitable, forgiveable,
handleable, hateable, healable, hopeable, husbandable, impound-
able, leaseable, lendable, lettable, liveable, loseable, matchable,
parchable, quenchable, riddable, rideable, rootable, sailable, sellable;
forestallment; doggery, j&rkery; inkhornize; draggage, heriotage,
hoopage, meadowage, saltage, sunnage; dotterelism, scoundrelism;
j&sheress, huckstress; snecket (a small neckband).

PROGRESS OF THE HYBRIDIZING MOVEMENT

The progress of the hybridizing movement may be indicated in
various ways.

I present first a numerical table showing the number of words
from Old English roots used in each century with the leading hybrid-

NUMBER OF WORDS RECORDED

Centuries

*-

Suffix

Thir-
teenth

Four-
teenth

Fifteenth

Sixteenth

Seven-
teenth

Eight-
eenth

Nine-
teenth

-ery

-age. . .

1

2

1

12

4
8

9

11

3

5

32

8

15

15

7

20

30

12

6

3

6

2

3

22

33

13

33

70

6

9

14

5

3

9

18

13

4

10

7
3
7
9
3
8
1

57
42

-ess (fern.). •

26

-ment

35

-able.

82

7

-let

68

-f y

16

-ize.

9

-ism.

68

-ist

20

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 7

izing sufiixes. Hybrids formed on loan-words and on later English
words, as well as proper names which are a later development, are
excluded, so that the table may have real value by this mathematical
treatment.

A second method of indicating the history of the movement is
to give the century during which the various sufiixes first formed
English hybrids. I present the following results:

Thirteenth century: -ery, -ess (not feminine), -y (-ery).

Fourteenth century: -able, -age, -ance, -ard, -ess (feminine),
-et, -ive, -ment, -ous, -rel, -ty.

Fifteenth century: -ative, -ette, -let, -on, -our, -ure.

Sixteenth century: -ado, -al, -an, -ate (nominal), -ation, -ic, -ical,
-ferous, -fy, -ish (verbal), -ise, -ism, -ist, -ite, ize, -oon.

Seventeenth century: -ade, -ancy, -ant, -ary, -cracy, -ee, -fication,
-graphy, -icism, -ine (feminine), -istical.

Eighteenth century: -ability, -acious, -ana, -ate (verbal), -cy,
-ia, -logy, -mania.

Nineteenth century: -ad, -cide, -crat, -ese, -esque, -graphic, -ine
(adj., chem.), -istic, -ization, -latry, -lite, -logist, -oid, -phobia,
-polis, -tion, -um.

It should be remembered in this connection that with rare excep-
tions suffixes once introduced as hybridizing agents continue to
exercise this function, though of course in decidedly varying degrees.

A third method of presenting the matter is by a variation of the
first method used. Accordingly, taking into consideration not only
the words from Old English but all the native and Germanic elements
as well as the proper names, I find that the following major suffixes
formed more hybrid words during the nineteenth than in any pre-
ceding century: -able, -age, -an, -ation, -ee, -ery, -ess (feminine),
-fy, -ia, -ic, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ize, -let, -ment.

Fourth, in addition to the suffixes just named, the following
minor suffixes formed new hybrids during the nineteenth century:
-ability, -acious, -ad, -ade, -al, -ana, -ance, -ant, -ate (nominal),
-ative, -atory, -cide, -crat, -cracy, -cy, -ese, -esque, -et, -ette, -ferous,
-fication, -graphy, -graphic, -ical, -icism, -ine (all four suffixes),
-istic, -istical, -ization, -latry, -logist, -logy, -mania, -maniac, -oid, -on,
-ous, -phobia, -polis, -tion, -ty, -um, -y (-ery). To these should be

8 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

added a number of suffixes and blendic terminations which occurred
only in single words.

Fifth, the forming of hybrids by the addition of foreign suffixes
to English proper names, as will be shown later in the section reserved
for that topic, was hardly known until the sixteenth century, and
reached its crowning manifestation, both in the number of words and
in the number of suffixes employed, during the course of the nine-
teenth century.

By way of a general summary one may say then that the hybrid-
izing movement had a slight beginning in the thirteenth century;
that the fourteenth showed a small number of hybrids, chiefly in
-ess (feminine) ; that the number was increased slightly during the
fifteenth through the coming of the suffixes -age and -able; that there
was a large increase during the sixteenth due to the rather free use
of -ous, -age, -ery, -ment, and -ahle; that the seventeenth was very
prolific in new forms; that the eighteenth showed a marked decrease
in new formations; and that the nineteenth was pre-eminently the
century of this type of hybrid words.

GENERAL

Some of the words in the tables to be presented later have taken
rather numerous suffixes. By way of illustration, I list the following:

alderman, aldermancy, aldermaness, aldermanic, aldermanical,
aldermanity, and the contracted aldress.

chattable, chattation, chattative, chattee; and chatteration,
chatterist, chatterment.

clubbable, clubbability, clubbism, clubbist, clubbical, clubocracy.

drinkable, drinkability, drinkery, drinkeress; drunkard,
drunkardize, drunkery.

fishable, fishery, fishet, fishify, fishlet, fisheress.

fistiana, fistic, fistical, fistify.

flirtable, flirtation, flirtational, flirtatious, flirtee.

ghostess, ghostism, ghostify, ghostology.

gigmaness, gigmania, gigmanic, gigmanical, gigmanism, gigmanity
(gigman was invented by Carlyle who used all of the foregoing forms).

gullible, gullibility, guUage, gullery, gullify.

husbandable, husbandage, husbandical, husbandize, husbandry.

jingoesque, jingoism, jingoist, jingoistic.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 9

mannet, mannable, mannify, mannity.

moonery, moonet, moonify, moonlet.

mongrelity, mongrelism, mongrelize, mongrelization.

nickelic, nickeliferous, nickeline, nickelite, nickelization, nickelize,
nickelous.

punlet, punnage, punnic, punnical, punnigram, punology.

quizzable, quizzability, quizzacious, quizzatorial, quizzee, quiz-
zery, quizzical, quizzicality, quizzify, quizzification, quizzity.

teetotalism, teetotalist, teetotalize, teetotaleress.

writeable, writeability, writative, writee, writeress.

SUMMARY OF THE SOURCES OF THE SUFFIXES FORMING HYBRIDS
(Those used only in single words are not included)

From Latin directly: -al, -an, -ana, -ancy, -ary, -ate, -atic, -ation,
-ferous, -fication, -ioBPl, -um.

From Latin through Romance: -able, -aceous, -ade, -age, -ance,
-ant, -ative, -cide, -ese, -ess (not feminine), -fy, -ic, -ice, -ine (adj.
and chem.), -ish (verbal), -ive, -ment, -on, -ous, -tion, -ty, -ure.

From Romance directly: -ado, -ee, -ery (some derive this from the
Latin through French), -et, -ette, -our, -rel, -y (-ery).

From Greek directly: -ad, -graphic, -latry, -mania, -polls.

From Greek through Latin or Romance: -cracy, -crat, -cy, -ess
(feminine), graphy, -ia, -ine (feminine), -ism, -ist, -istic, -ite, -ize, -lite,
-logy, -oid, -phobia.

English combinations of foreign suffixes: -ability, -icism, -istical,
-ization, -let.

Teutonic suffixes introduced through Romance: -ard, -esque.

The words to be listed subsequently under Romance suffixes, and
under Latin suffixes which have come through the Romance, are,
with the exception of the few words under Spanish or Italian suf-
fixes, a demonstration of the rather profound influence of French on
the morphology of the English language.

CLASSES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY TO WHICH THE LEADING
HYBRIDIZING SUFFIXES MOST FREELY ATTACH THEMSELVES

To Old English words: -able, -ability, -age, -ance, -ess (feminine),
-et, -let.

To proper names: -an, -ese, -esque, -ia, -ine, -ization, -ize.

10 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Of the suffixes more evenly distributed through the various
classes of the vocabulary, -ard, -ation, -ery, -ment^ -ous, -ty affect
chiefly Old English words and later English formations, -ism
affects chiefly Old English words, later formations, and proper names.
-4c affects chiefly loan-words from German and proper names, -ical
affects chiefly later formations and proper names.

EVIDENCE THAT ANALOGY RATHER THAN CONSCIOUS ADDITION OF
SUFFIX TO ROOT HAS BEEN A PRIME FACTOR IN HYBRIDIZATION

No proof of the contention advanced above can be offered. The
best one can do is to offer evidence that points in that direction. I
submit the following considerations:

1. The large number of loan-words bearing these suffixes; espe-
cially those which came from Teutonic through Romance. For a
list see below. Almost equally important were the more numerous
loan-words with Latin or Romance roots which passed into the
common vocabulary.

2. The occurrence of some of these hybrids in enumerative sen-
tences or in phrases where the suggestion of analogy is especially
strong. I present the following examples: " Anabaptism, Seekerism,
Quakerism"; ''drudgery, gropery and pokery"; ''increase of years
makes man more talkative, but less writeative"; "insectology,
miteology, and nothingology " ; "lawyery or wealthy gentry";
"overseerism, absenteeism"; " potasheries, tanneries, breweries";
"several languages, as cawation, chirpation, hootation, whistleation,
crowation, cackleation, shriekation, hissation .... and foolation"
(this in ridicule of such words as vexation and visitation which were
beginning to be substituted for the verbal substantive); "witchery,
devilry, robbery, poachery, piracy, fishery."

3. Certain words seem fashioned obviously on others. Examples:
angelry as in tenantry and yeomanry; cheesery after buttery and
grocery; clothement perhaps after raiment; corsery after brokery
and jobbery; crabbery after rookery; crankery after foolery, knavery
etc.; colteity after corporeity; dandizette after French words like
grisette; devilade after masquerade; devilination after divination;
deviltry after divinity; dreadour after dolour; flunkey age after
peerage; friendable after amicable; footpaddery after robbery;
funniment perhaps after merriment; gaspant, prickant, and scampant

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 11

after heraldic terms like rampant; goatrill after cockerel; goluptious
after voluptuous; grumbletonian after such religious sects as Muggle-
tonian, Grindletonian, etc.; henatrice after cockatrice (to form
humorous feminine); hangment perhaps after judgment; heathery-
after pinery, fernery, etc.; hindrance after resistance; knavigation
after navigation; kneelet, necklet, wristlet, etc., after armlet, bracelet;
lovertine after libertine; maltase after diatase; manity after human-
ity; middleageism for mediaevalism; nothingousian in contrast to
Parousian; offtract after abstract, extract, etc.; paltripolitan after
metropolitan; pathment, an alteration of pavement; popinian after
Socinian; priestybulous, a pun on prostibulous; punkateero after
Spanish words like muleteero; punnigram after epigram; puffatory
after laudatory ; rumbleante after andante ; shabaroon after picaroon ;
shamevous after bounteous, plenteous, etc. ; scrippage after baggage
(in phrase scrip and scrippage after bag and baggage) ; shopocracy
after democracy, plutocracy; sickerty after security; slaughtery
after butchery; smockage after sockage; snobonomer perhaps after
astronomer; thousandaire after millionaire; titivate after cultivate;
toggery after drapery; twitchety after fidgety; thwarterous per-
haps influenced by boisterous; waveson after jetson, jettison, etc.;
witticaster after criticaster; witticism after Atticism, GaUicism.
Many other examples can be adduced.

HYBRIDS FORMED ON PROPER NAMES

The addition of Romance, Latin, or Greek suffixes to English
proper names (and to Germanic names borrowed into English) is at
present very common. This usage, however, came later than that of
adding such suffixes to ordinary words. Indeed, it is quite largely
a nineteenth-century development. The following summaries cover
the more significant facts:

In the fifteenth century occur Danishry and Lollardry.

In the sixteenth century occur: Scoggery; American, Calvinian,
Friesian, Gothian, Lappian, Mercian, Rogerian, Schwenkfeldian;
Mennonite; Frenchify; Calvinism, Chaucerism, Euphuism, Luther-
ism, Martinism, Schwenkfeldianism, Scogginism; Saxonical, Skel-
tonical; Barrowist, Brownist, Calvinist, Gothamist, Martinist,
Saxonist, and Scogginist.

12 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

The seventeenth century furnishes fairly numerous instances
under the suffixes: -ad, -ery, -ism, -ist, and -ize.

The eighteenth century brought into use the additional suffixes :
-ess (feminine), -ia, -let, -mania.

The nineteenth century, in addition to using with greater freedom
most of the suffixes previously introduced, added the following : -able,
-ad, -ade, -ana, -ation, -ee, -ese, -esque, -ine, -isticate, -ization, -latry,
-logist, -maniac, -oid, -phobia.

The suffixes most in use during the nineteenth century were : -an,
-ic, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ize.

In general, it may be said that the addition of Romance, Latin,
and Greek suffixes to proper names is far more frequent than the
examples collected from the dictionaries would indicate. Newspapers
and magazines use them with the utmost freedom, and the reader
does not go far in the scholarly journals without finding that the
name of practically every literary figure of the past is used with -an,
-ana, -esque, -dsm, -ist, and -ize. The custom of naming new minerals
after the discoverer plus -ite also furnishes a very large list of
hybrids.

The following are the proper names which have taken an unusual
number of foreign suffixes. An -^- occurs before -ad, -an, -fy, etc.

American: -ism, -ist, -ization, -ize.

Bentham: -ic, -ism, -ite, -ry.

Byron: -ad, -an, -ic, -ical, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ize.

Calvin: -an, -ism, -ist, -istic, -istical, -isticate, -ize.

Carlyle: -an, -ana, -ese, -esque, -ism, -ite.

Cockney: -an, -icality, -ese, -ess (fem.), -fy, -iac, -ism, -ize.

Cromwell: -ad, -ate, -an, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ize.

Darwin: -an, -anism, -ical, -ism, -ist, -istic, -ite, -ize.

Euphu(es): -ism, -ist, -istic, -istical, -ize.

French: -ery, -fication, -fy, -ism, -ize.

Goth: -an, -ic, -icism, -icist, -icit}^, -icize, -ism.

Hohbes: -an, -anism. Hobb(es) -an, -anism, -ism, -ist, -istical, -ize.

Johnson: -an, -anism, -ese, -ism, -ize.

London: -an, -ese, -esque, -ism, -ize, -ization, -logist.

Luther: -an, -ancer, -anic, -anism, -anize, -ism, -ist, -latrist,
-latry.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 13

Mesmer: -an, -ic, -ical, -ism, -ist, -ite, -izable, -izability, -ization,
-ize, -izee.

Milton: -an, -ic, -ism, -ist, -ize.

Odin: -an, -ic, -ism, -ist, -itic.

Owen: -an, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ize.

Pecksniff: -an, -anism, -ery, -ism.

Perkin(s): -an, -ism, -ist, -istic, -ize.

Pusey: -ism, -ist, -istic, -istical, -ite, -itical.

Quaker: -an, -ess (fern.), -ic, -ism, -istical, -ization, -ize, -y
(-ery).

Ruskin: -ade, -an, -ese, -esque, -ism, -ize.

Shakespere: -an, -ana, -anism, -ism, -ize, -later, -latry, -logy.

Tammany: -al, -fication, -fy, -ism, -ite, -ization, -ize.

Wagner: -an, -ana, -anism, -ism, -ist, -ite.

Three comments on the foregoing list are perhaps worth while.
First, authors or their characters, religious leaders or sects, and
physicians and scientists are especially likely to have many suffixes
added to their names. Second, these names with many suffixes
are largely of the nineteenth-century men or characters. Third,
all but three of the suffixes added to Cockney, London, Shakespere,
and Tammany were first recorded in the nineteenth century.

THE PLAN OF THE CLASSIFICATION UNDER WHICH THIS COLLECTION
OF HYBRID WORDS IS LISTED

The system of classification which I have adopted is designed to
show three things: (1) the suffixes which have formed the type of
hybrid under discussion; (2) the classes of the English vocabulary
affected thereby; (3) the chronological history of each suffix as a
hybridizing agent. Accordingly, the words are grouped under their
appropriate suffixes, and each suffix list is subdivided into general
classes and each class into the centuries in which the use of the word
was first recorded.

The following are the classes of the vocabulary:

I. Words formed on an Old English base.

II. Latin words adopted in Old English which have since rather
definitely severed their connection with the mother-language. These
words, because of their early adoption, seem fairly to be treated as

14 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

native, inasmuch as their subsequent history is chiefly English. But
words such as ''palm" and "sponge," which have been taken over
into scientific nomenclature and fashioned into various forms resting
strictly on Latin usage, are excluded. So with other words which
for one reason or another have kept a close connection with the
parent Latin. Hebrew loan-words which came into Old English
through the Latin are also excluded.

III. English words adopted from the Scandinavian whether
during the Old English period or later.

IV. Teutonic words which were adopted into English through
the Romance tongues. However, only such words are included as
have added the specific suffix during their life as English words.

V. Words of uncertain history with indications pointing inde-
terminately toward a Romance or a Teutonic origin. This class is
quite small, and might better, perhaps, be omitted, as none of the
words included under it are certainly within the field of this disser-
tation.

VI. English words which are probable adoptions from the Dutch
or Low German. Here, as in Class IV, only the words which have
added the specific suffix during their English life are included.

VII. Words with apparently related or somewhat sinailar forms
in continental Teutonic but regarding which no sufficient evidence of
borrowing has been adduced.

VIII. Words adopted from modern German.

IX. Words of later English formation. This large class includes
slang, dialect, trade names, arbitrarily coined words, and words
which have no ascertained history or connection with other lan-
guages.

X. Proper names. This class is subjected to a fourfold division :
X-A. Words formed on personal names.

X-B. Words formed on fictitious names, as of characters in plays,
poems, novels, etc., and of imaginary countries. Not logically, but
as a matter of literary interest, I have included here the writers whose
names have come to be definite parts of the English vocabulary.

X-C. Words formed on place-names.

X-D. Words formed on other proper names, chiefly those of tribes
and nations.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 15

The figures in parentheses before the various divisions under
each class of each suffix indicate the '' year-hundred" in which the
use of the immediately following words was first recorded. Thus
(15) indicates that the first recorded usage was between 1500 and
1599. The question mark in parentheses (?), indicates that the
date of first usage is not known. Similarly " W" in parentheses (W) ,
and " S '^ in parentheses (S), indicate that the words are from Wright's
Dialect Dictionary in the one case, and from the Dictionary of Slang
and Its Analogues, by Farmer and Henley, in the other. In both
cases the date of first usage is not recorded.

Only in exceptional cases is the full form of the word printed.
As a rule, I list only the base to which the suffix is added. Thus
under -able I print only ''walk," ''do," for walkable, doable.

AUTHORITIES

All words for which a date indication is made are from the New
English Dictionary. For such words its authority is accepted for
derivations. From the same source come practically all the deriva-
tions of suffixes which appear at the head of each table. The few
exceptions are suffixes which that dictionary has not yet reached.

The Century Dictionary is the authority for the words preceded
by an interrogation point in parentheses with the rare exceptions of
words which the New English Dictionary lists without dates.

Alphabetically, the Century Dictionary is authority for a part of
the words beginning with s and ty and all — except those preceded by
(W) or (S) — under u, v, w, x, y, z.

The authority for words preceded by (W) and (S) has been given.

Suffix derivations not drawn from the New English Dictionary
are from the Century or the New International.

PERSONAL

In closing this introduction to my collection of hybrids, I wish
to admit frankly that not all the words listed fit into their assigned
classes with the certainty and finality that I should desire. Some
which I have classified under Scandinavian or Dutch and Low
German adoptions should perhaps have been listed more conserva-
tively under the words with somewhat similar forms in continental

16 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Teutonic. Some of the words under the heading of EngHsh forma-
tions may have analogues and possible sources in continental Teutonic
— or perhaps even in the Romance languages. Except in the last
case mentioned, possible indiscretions in classification would not
affect the validity of my results. Scandinavian, Dutch, and Low
German adoptions belong equally to the type of hybrids I am pre-
senting. So with later English formations. Fundamentally, my
responsibility for derivation ends with the choosing of words which
have either a native or a Germanic base. I have tried to follow
the indications of the lexicons listed as my authorities without
venturing into etymologizing on my own account.

I realize, too, the risk involved in rearing the rather elaborate
structure of chronological conclusions which this work presents on a
foundation of not quite complete material. When the New English
Dictionary prints the last word under 2, some of the dates for first
usage of certain suffixes may have to be changed. Nevertheless, I
am confident that the conclusions presented are substantially cor-
rect— especially in so far as they concern the general progress of the
movement. Dates are available on by far the larger part of the
English vocabulary. The conclusions drawn from them, while not
certain, are entitled to be called prohahle.

In handling so large a body of words, some errors of date, perhaps
even of derivation, have doubtless crept in. I have tried to guard
against such by checking over every word in the list. On the other
hand, I have had no way of checking up errors of omission. I would
appreciate the kindness of readers in calling my attention to errors
of either type, as I expect to revise this study when the New
English Dictionary is completed.

SECTION II

WORD LISTS

-ery

Source : Middle English -erie from French -ene representing (a) Romanic
-aria produced by the addition of the suffix -la (French -ie) to the substantives
or adjectives formed with the Latin suffix -ario (French -ier, -er); (b) from
the suffix -ie to agent nouns in Old French -ere, -eor, from Latin -ator,
-atorem.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 17

Function: Forms nouns denoting: the place where an emplojonent is
carried on; classes of goods; a general collective sense; a state or condition ;
that which is characteristic of or connected with; a place where certain
animals are kept.

Class I: (12) reave. (13) rope, gold-smith. (14) chapman, flesh,
flesh-hew, fox, housewife, leman, losel, lose, midwife. (15) beads-
man, bitch, bloom, book, brothel, dolt, drudge, gossip, guild, heathen,
household, knave, landlord, quean, thief. (16) ape, bewitch, bottom,
brew, coal, cough, coxcomb, dog, filth, firk, fish, glass, goose, grout-
head, leech, minch, neat, salt, smith, smoke, soap, tape. (17) bleach,
bridal, cat, cock, duck, dye, frog, green, grope, grub, highland, hose,
nail, puff, rook, snail, tin, toad. (18) ash, bind, blackguard, bough,
brazen, can, carve, cheese, cinder, cloud, cobweb, crab, crank, croak,
dream, drink, drunk, dry, eel, errand, fern, finch, fisticuff, fleshpot,
footpad, fowl, furze, god, grind, gut, harvest, hatch, hat, hawk, hen,
henpeck, leaf, moon, moss, nut, oldmaid, oldwife, oldwoman, owl,
peacock, pig, playwright, rat, raven, redtape, rett, seal, slop, snake,
taw, teal, thimblerig, thistle. ( ?) sheriff, shrub, spin, staniel, stem,
steward, stitch, stud, sull-, swine, undershrieve, warlock, weapon,
weed, whale, witch, wright, yeoman. (W) dim, fleece, gang, maze.

Class II: (13) cook, devil, provost. (15) bishop, monk, pope,
school. (16) gem, kitchen, minch, priest. (17) pine. (18) angel,
camel, rose, tile. ( ?) wine. (W) mill, plant.

Class III: (12) husband. (14) skin, skulk. (15) scald, scug,
sluggard. (16) gun. (17) rake. (18) bloom, club, fike, kidnap,
leg, loom, mink, nook, rag, ragamuffin, root, tatterdemalion.
( ?) trash, wag. (W) blad-.

Class IV: (15) braggart, chamberlain, herald. (16) blazon,
heron, renald. (17) fur. (18) garnish, grape, quail, scavage,
towel. ( ?) warden, wizard, zigzag.

Class V: (15) bauble, pick, puppet, sloven. (18) pickpocket.
(W) bush.

Class VI: (15) brabble, dote, smaik-. (16) groll, snip. (17)
quack. (18) frolick, monkey, pack, potash, scrub, slap-dash,
smuggle, tattle. ( ?) wagon.

Class VII: (13) huck. (14) nigon. (15) babble, boy, clown,
fop, frump, gull (deception), prate, scaff-, scoff, slut, snatch, snot.

18 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

(16) botch, fob, fub, interlop-erie. (18) claptrap, cogwheel, knick-
knack, raff-, smash, snug, tipstave. ( ?) whiffle. (W) flap, knab-,
rood, snag, snash, trick. (S) flash.

Class VIII: (?) swindle.

Class IX: (13) corse. (15) drab, dud, fop, glaik, jouk, lim,
loon, patch, rogue, ruffle, snudge. (16) cog-, dodge, dull. (17) gim-
crack, maggot, parrot. (18) basket, chum, clamjamph, dude, fag,
fake, fallal-, fribble, frill, gag, gewgaw, girl, grog, growl, hobgoblin,
hog, hug, humbug, humdrum, jackanape, jackass, job, jump, kodak,
loaf, mugwump, nimcompoop, pig- (pottery), popgun, prig, punch,
quiz, racket, rigmarole, rum, scoundrel, scroll, skull, slum, snob,
tag, tagrag, tog, tomfool. (?) totem, whig. (W) crog-, dap-,
froot-, gad, ged, gib-, gig, lyt-rie, nab, spreagh-erie, stouth-rie, stuth-
rie, swop, twig.

Class X: X-A: (15) Scoggery. (18) Bentham.

X-B:

(18) Pecksniff.

X-C:

(18) Newgate.

X-D:

(14) Danish, Lollard. (15) French.
-y i-ery, -ry)

(17) Scotch

Source: Romanic -ia (French -ie).

Function: Forms substantives with the senses listed under -ery.

Class I: (12) sigalder. (13) harbour. (14) glover, tapster,
saddler. (15) chaffer, clouter, demster, engraver, fiddler, gamester,
seamster. (16) fawner, graver. (17) brazier, grazier. (18) beaver,
cinder, cracker, glazier, heather, islander, mosstrooper, sliver.
(?) shipchandler, southron-ie, spinster, upholster. (W) hammer,
water.

Class II: (17) fuller.

Class III: (13) sluggard. (15) bangster. (16) slaughter.
(17) higgler, lawyer.

Class IV: (13) holour. (16) scavenger. (18) gardner, har-
binger, pawnbroker, poacher.

Class V: (13) beggar.

Class VI: (15) cooper, slabber. (16) quacksalver. (18) free-
booter, smelter. ( ?) wafer.

Class VII: (13) huckster. (15) glaver. (18) smatter.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 19

Class IX: (16) clutter, filcher, pettyfogger, prowler. (17) chat-
ter, sculdugger. (18) bungler, fibber, glamour.
Class X: X-D: (16) Quaker.

-ous
Source: Latin -os, -us, -a, -urn through Old French and Anglo-French

-OS, -■MS.

Function: Forms adjectives denoting: abounding in, full of, char-
acterized by, of the nature of. ,

Notes: In cleverous, -us equals -ous. Theftous and wrongous are
probably deformations of the Enghsh suffix -wise. Compare righteous.

Class I: (14) crafti-, churl, mighty, shadow, shame, shamevous
(after bounteous), sinew, theft, time. (15) blaster-, brothel, burden,
cluster, filth, fire, harbour, hill, hungry, murder, slipper, thunder.

(16) brood, cinder, cloudy, gander, grip-ulous, heathen, teen.

(17) crank, glimmer, tetter. (18) manslaughter, riproari-, tinder,
(?) whisper, winter, wonder, wrong. (W) dair (dare), darker, din,
flouchter, giver, new, other, starkaragi-, starve, unc-, undeem.
(S) stink.

Class II: (13) fever. (15) copper. (16) master. (18) ginger,
line. (W) pine.

Class III: (13) happy. (15) slaughter. (16) awe, thwarter-
(influenced by boisterous) . (18) croup, gunpowder, reef . (?) trap,
tungst(en). (W) scabelog-us, ugiov-.

Class IV: (14) beguile. (18) filibuster, gruel. (W) touch.

Class V: (13) cumber. (18) grumble.

Class VI: (14) slumber. (15) loiter. (?) snuffle.

Class VII: (13) boiste-, squeam-. (14) niggard. (15) bluster,
clever-US, mutter, toy. (18) gouster, lackluster. (W) riptori-,
sway-m-.

Class VIII: (17) quartz. (18) bismuth, blend, cobalt, felds-
path-ose, gneiss-ose, nickel, plunder, schorl. ( ?) spath-ose, quartz-
ose, zinc.

Class IX: (13) bust-e, gleim. (14) lusci-. (15) pester.
(16) fliper, scoundrel. (17) cantanker-, rumbusti-. (18) blizzard,
bumpti-, catawamp-, fratch-e, glamor, golupti, gumpti-, rampage,
rumgumpti-, scrumpti-. (?) smudge. (W) bobber, brabagi-, bull-

20 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

rage-, camstr-oudge, canapsh-us, cappernish-, curnapti-, ganag-,
gargrug-, glastri-, heroni-, jinnipr-, junti-, lobstropol-, mallagrug-,
mislushi-, morunge-, pecuri-, polrumpti-, rambunksh-us, ramstage-,
rebuncti-, rumbulli-, rumpti-, runge-, salopci-, samps-, sponti-,
swaim-, viner-, witter-. (S) flambusti-, humgumpti-, lumpshi-,

pollrumpti-, rumstrugen-.

-acious

Source: Latin -act (French -ace), an adjective ending, plus -ous.
Function: Forms adjectives denoting: given to, inclined to, abound-
ing in.

Class I: (W) bold.

Class II: (18) butter.

Class III: (W) jaw-b-atious.

Class IV: (17) robber.

Class VII: (17) schorl.

Class IX: (18) flirt, quizz, ramp.

-dtious

Source: Latin -ici-us plus -ous. It was written -itius in late Latin
through confusion of c and t.

Function: Forms adjectives similar in meaning to those in -acious.

Class IX: (W) over.

-ferous (usually written -iferous)

Source: Latin -fer, plus -ous.

Function: Forms adjectives with the sense: bearing, containing.

Class I: (15) sand.

Class III : ( ?) tungsten.

Class V: (18) nebul.

Class VIII: (18) cobalt, nickel, quartz. (?) zinc.

Class X: X-C: (?) Ytter.

-age

Source: Old French -age; late Latin -dticum, originally neuter of
adjectives in -dtic-us.

Function: Forms abstract nouns from nouns or verbs. When added
to the names of things it indicates: belonging to, or functionally related to.
When added to the names of persons it indicates: function, condition, rank.
When added to verbs it expresses the action.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 21

Class I: (13) barn (child). (14) borrow, cart, crane, ferry, gavel
(rent), ground, land, lighter, love (honor), tarry, till. (15) bough,
brew, day, dolt, father, fold, harbour, leaf, let, liver (an agnail), met-
(O.E. metan), mother, own, pound (the impounding of cattle), thirl.
(16) answer, beacon, bestow, boat, bottom, brine, crib, dike, drain,
drag, eat, float, foal, foster, foul, heriot, hoop, horn, house, impound,
light, load, lock, mast, meadow, moor, neighbour, row, sail, salt, seed,
smock, son. (17) boatman, colt, doom, dray, fit, floor, ford, leave-
looker (a tax), nail, oar, off, soak, teen. (18) acre, ache, berth, blind,
bloom, break, chock-, cleave, cloud, dream, drone, drown, fall, fell,
field, flood, flow, gale (rent), girder, green, have, haven, helm, hulk,
knight, lair, lead, meter, nest, pond, roof, room, rough, run, scrape,
seep, shack, side, sift, sink, sip, smell. ( ?) ship, shore, short, shrink,
sHde, spoon, stand, steer, stir, stow, sun, sweep, tun, waft, warp,
ward, water, weft, wharf, wheel, wind, wrap, wreck, yar-, yard. (W)
brock (broke), brought, foot, mooter-, out, pit, slip, stell, still, winter.

Class II: (13) pound (tax). (15) anchor, mifi^ school.

(16) pipe. (17) mile, provost. (18) line.

Class III: (13) thrill-. (14) keel, leak, scour (skirmishing).
(15) lug, root, thirl. (16) ballast, booth. (17) gun. (18) burgher,
dock (deduction of the tail), husband, link, rake, seat, slaughter.
(?) stack, want. (W) gate, stoup, thrall.

Class IV: (13) hount-. (15) band. (16) garden, guard, guar-
dian, pawn, regard, scrip, tron-. (18) block, group, haul, pawn-
broker, scaven-. ( ?) wain, waiter. (W) furr-.

Class V: (13) pick. (18) buoy, ramp, screw. (?) stop.

Class VI: (13) dote. (14) fraught. (15) poll. (16) deck,
freight, pack, snap. (17) cooper, graf-. (18) boom, dotard, dump,
pump, slip, track. ( ?) wagon.

Class VII: (15) clown. (16) boy, dun, gull, huckster, rig,
scoff, scour. (17) dock, drift. (18) lack, prop, restock, silt.
(?) splint, stump.

Class VIII: (17) plunder.

Class IX: (15) flob-, fog-, (grass). (16) lop, peck, scoff.

(17) chum. (18) flunkey, pun, roke, scroU. (?) squarson.
(W) brain, fleak, hag (variant of baggage), haur-, kibb-, latt-, raf-,
scall, scoor, skim-, slum, sock, stracum-, strim-, till, ull-age, wall-.

22 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

-ment

Source: French loan-words in -ment from Latin -mentum, or formed
in French in imitation of such.

Function: Forms from verbs substantives which denote: the result or
the product, or the means or instrument of an action, or serving simply as a
noun of action.

Notes: Gazement is by popular etymology from casement. The New
England Dictionary lists agastment (1594) as an ''early instance." A number
of words occur earlier.

Class I: (13) curse, mar, one, path. (14) hot (remedy),
ground, hang, ledge, murder. (15) abode, acknowledge, agast,
atone, betroth, better, cold, day,, dreari-, emboldish, enfold, foster,
let, maze, merri-, need, renew, tarry, teach, tide. (16) afford,
affright, allay, bedew, benight, beseech, bequeath, bewitch, blast,
bode, clad, eke, embitter, embow, endear, engrave, enlighten, en-
twine, fangle, fit, flesh, forestall, fresh, fright, idle, impound, knowl-
edge, like, lot, mingle, misshape, settle, shaft. (17) ail, bereave,
bestow, embreast, enlist, fulfill, herri-, household, newfangle, repine.
(18) addle, awaken, benumb, beset, bespatter, bestrew, bodi-,
clothe, crumble, disbench, disburden, disown, dishearten, do, dum-
founder, dwindle, embed, embody, embower, embreathe, embrown,
enlink, enliven, enmesh, enswathe, fasten, fiddle, fleech, intertwine,
inweave, lengthen, mismatch, miss, soothe. ( ?) ship, strew, sunder,
topsyturvy, unfold, upset, wander, wary, watch, withdraw, with-
hold, wonder, worry. (W) agush, bake, breakage, file, flowter,
flutter, galli-, gither, hander-, hay, heng, hinder, mash, mazer, ope,
rise, ruse (fall), rush, sattle, smother, steady, thingi-, upsot, warnish
(warn), wrangle.

Class II: (17) devil. (18) enshrine.

Class III: (13) bush, egg (incite). (15) amaze, imbank.
(16) bewail, dazzle, enthrall, entrust, toss. (17) ettle (intention),
odd. (18) bewilder, daze, disbar, rekindle, tangle. (?) wail.
(W) glitter, gloppen, ket, labber, muck, raise, scruff, tether, trash.

Class IV: (13) elope. (15) award, banish, brush, disguise,
fray, furnish, garnish, garrison, grapple, install, lure, seize. (16)
brandish, dismay, enlodge, enrich, regain. (17) disrobe, emblazon,
equip. (18) beguile, blazon, eschew, furbish, hut, marshall.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 23

Class V: (13) cumber. (18) mottle.

Class VI: (15) brabble, freight, mumble, rabble. (16) scrabble,
slabber. (18) beleaguer, dizen, ravel, tattle. ( ?) trick. (W) gab-
ber, mang.

Class VII: (15) gaze, hurl, prattle. (16) babble, ensnare,
gase- (for casement), paltre-, prate. (17) rumble. (18) dabble,
dangle, dimple, dismast, fluster, gabble, giggle, huddle, muddle,
plash, ruffle. (W) bungle, hussle, maffle, mashel, muggle, pauta-,
rumple, shoka-, slop, slopper, swash, swatter.

Class VIII: (16) enslave.

Class IX: (15) bicker, dribble, pester, ratch. (16) clutter,
jabber, patch. (17) chatter, enwrap, jumble, scramble. (18) bam-
boozle, bother, disgruntle, embrangle, fake, funny, pother, puzzle,
rouse. (?) paik. (W) belli-, blash, blather, blunder, bodder,
boffle, brilla-, brog, caddie, clash, dang, dess, dither, dod, dodder,
donetle, dorish, dow, durt, faddle, faff, faffle, falder, fallalder, fan-
dangle, fettle, fiffle-faffle, filth, fluff, frettish, fudder, fuss, gaf, galdi-,
jubber, jubble, kelter, lagger, pipper, ramfeezle, ramtangle, red, rig,
rope, sabble, scatter, scowder, sossle, sploader, swadder, swagger,
swizzle, tanche, tankle, tantaddle, teul, tinker, trinkle, truntle,
umble, unoora-, wylle. (S) flurry, kid.

-able

Source: French -able; Latin -dbilem.

Function: Forms adjectives from verbs (and irregularly from nouns
and phrases) expressing: that which can be done.

Notes: Early loan-words were: passable, agreeable, amendable. The
use of this suffix was facilitated by its form resemblance to the adjective able.

Class I: (13) believe, leve, love, love (praise), overtrow, sell,
sing. (14) behold, behove, bite, bow, buy, cleanse, do, dread, ear
(plow), eat, feel, fill, find, forbear, forbid, gild, grope, ground, hear,
know, mark, murder, overcome, pitch, play, see, seek, send, smell,
teach, tell, tithe. (15) answer, bear, bury, chapman, cheap, fall, fell,
follow, forgive, frame, friend, gather, hang, heal, heat, heriot, laugh,
lay, match, molt (melt), moot, plough, poind, read, reap, row, sail,
smite, tame, till. (16) abide, affright, ane, ask, atone, beat, bemoan,
bend, bequeath, boat, board, bruise, burden, burn, burst, cart,

24 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

choose, climb, come-at, crum(b), deal, drain, draw, drink, end,
fathom, feed, fire, first-fruit, fish, fit, ford, foreknow, gale, graze,
grind, handle, hate, have, hold, hope, impound, inutter, knowledge,
learn, leas(e) (loose), lend, let, list, live, lose, man, meat, melt, mingle,
mow, oath, overflow, overthrow, quench, reach, reckon, ride, set,
shape, sin, slide, smooth, thieve, tire. (17) acre, bore, breathe, gut,
like, overturn, renew. (18) acknowledge, afford, awake, awaken,
bathe, bestow, bid, borrow, brook, chicken, clean, cleave, crack,
cram, disown, dot, drive, drown, eye, fat, fear, ferry, fight, finger,
fleece, float, flood, flutter, fly, fold, forsee, forget, foster, fright,
frighten, give, gnaw, grasp, green, grow, help, hew, hire, hoodwink,
hunt, keep, kiss, knead, lead, light, lock, misunderstand, mouth,
name, net, nickname, open, pull, real, rend, right, ring, rope, run,
rundown, say, scrape, scratch, settle, shake, sight, sink, slay, small-
talk, smoke, smother, talk, tap, tear, tease, think, threaten.
(?) shape, shift, shrink, shoot, speak, spell, squeeze, stead, steer,
swallow, swim, twist, understand, unempty, unriddle, unshake,
unshun, unsight, untire, utter, wade, walk, wash, wear, weary,
weave, weep, weigh, weld, wet, wield, win, wish, work, worship,
wound, write, yield. (W) gang, gast, unthole. (S) unhint, un-
whisper.

Class II: (15) fever, offer, school. (16) anchor, line, plant,
purse. (18) cook, cross, forclose, master, spend.

Class III: (13) mistrow. (14) fellow, take. (15) bat, get,
root, sale, seem. (16) angry, bewail, happen, husband, raise, rid.

(17) club, get-at. (18) cast, get-over, guess, hit, lift, loan, lower,
scold, skip. (?) unmistake, unskill, unsway. (W) ken.

Class IV: (14) fee, seize. (15) bank, lodge, regard, reward,
roast. (16) abandon, award, furbish, guard, guerdon. (17) pawn.

(18) allot, brush, crush, furnish, garden, rebut, tarnish. (?) wain,
warrant. (W) brag.

Class V: (16) beg.

Class VI: (18) drill, pack, poke, poll, pump, smile, smuggle,
snap, track.

Class VII: (16) bubble. (18) bully, grab, bounce, gull, skip,
snatch, smash. (W) clever.

Class VIII: (18) plunder. (?) swindle.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 25

Class IX: (14) cut. (15) pester. (16) kick, parch, punch.
(17) quizz. (18) chat, caucus, flirt, humbug, jump, kill, pat, patch,
prig, pun, scatter. (W) simmend-, thruff-, unred.

Class X:X-D: (18) English. -^'

-ability
Source: -able plus -ity.

Class I: (17) come-at, eat, knead. (18) believe, crack, drink,
float, geld, hang, help, kiss, know, like, love, melt, name, play, read,
renew, ride, sing, tame, teach. (?) squeeze, unthink, unlearn,
unutter, weld, work, worship, write.

Class III: (17) sale. (18) club, get-at.

Class VII: (18) gull. (W) clever.

Class IX: (17) humbug. (18) quizz.

Class X: X-A: (18) Mesmerize.

-ess (feminine suffix)

Source: French -esse; common Romanic -essa; late Latin -issa which
was adopted from Greek -to-o-a.

Function: Forms feminine derivatives expressing sex.

Class I: (13) breaker, chooser, god, herd, huntr-, leaper,
murder, neighbour, singer, sinner, slayer, teacher. (14) chider,
dove, goldsmith. (15) backster, builder, horner, knight, leader,
mourner, neat-r-. (16) aldr-, ape, driver, elder, fisher, foster,
gamestr-, goat-r-, harbor, raven, seamstr-, soothsayer, tapstr-.

(17) dog, glover, keeper, songstr-. (18) alderman, baker, brewer,
coxcomb, cracker, drinker, fighter, ghost, harp, heathen, helper,
islander, knave, laird, maker, milker, nailer, player, playwright,
reader, rider, sailor, shepherd, seer, thane, toad. ( ?) sheriff, shootr-,
spinstr-, steward, weaver, writer.

Class II: (13) anchor, disher. (14) cook. (15) deacon, pope,
silkwindr-. (16) anchorite, bishop, devil, miller, priest. (17) monk.

(18) provost. (?) souter.

Class III: (13) thrall. (17) fellow. (18) gunner, husband,
jarl, lawyer, ragamuffin, waller.

Class IV: (13) marquis. (16) gardener, guardian. (17) mar-
shall. (18) banker, herald, pawnboker. ( ?) waitr-, warrior.

01'

26 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class V: (15) tauntr-. (18) cricketer.

Class VI: (16) scour. (17) landgrave, rhinegrave. (?) wagon.
Class VII: (16) huckster. (18) botcher, clown.
Class VIII: (18) plunder.

Class IX: (16) groom, pedlar. (17) lad. (18) donkey, gig-
man, loafer, prig, punstr-, snob, teetotaler. (S) jiff-.
Class X: X-D: (17) Quaker. (18) Cockney, Shaker.

-an, usually written -ian

Source: Latin -anus, -a, -um.

Function: Forms primarily adjectives, which,' however, are often used
substantively, with the senses: of, belonging to, following a system or doc-
trine.

Note: The forms in -avian and -onian are formed on the analogy of
the words listed in parentheses immediately following them.

Class I: (16) goosequill. (17) any-length, anything-ar-,
nothing-ar-. (18) nothing-ous-, something, this-world, topsyturvy.
(W) bury, sowd (south). (S) hungar (hunger), here-and-there.

Class II: (16) altar, pop-in- (on the analogy of Socinian).
(17) poppy.

Class III: (17) rake-hell-on-. (?) trap.

Class IV: (15) braggadoc-. (16) allod. (17) garrison.

Class V: (18) grumble-ton- (after Muggletonian, etc.).

Class VII: (18) knick-knack-ator-.

Class IX: (18) caucus, jackanaps.

Class X: X-A.: (15) Calvin, Luther, Roger, Schwenkfeld. (16,
Bodley, Cameron, Fox, Gomar, Grindleton, Hobb, John, Lull
Muggleton, Oliver. (17) Biddel, Brun-onian (Brownian), Chester-
field, Cotes, Cowper, Cromwell, Franklin, George, Hogarth, Hobbes,
Hutchison, Huyghen, Leibnitz, Newton, Perkin, Sandeman. (18)
Baxter, Berkley, Brown, Caxton, Cayley, David, Darwin, Edward,
Elizabeth, Garrison, Gauss, Gladstone, Graaf, Green, Gudermann,
Hamilton, Harder, Hartley, Havers, Hegel, Henley, Henslow,
Herschel, Hess, Hopkins, Hume, Hunter, Hutton, Jefferson, Kant,
Kleist, Lancaster, Lieberkuhn, Lister, Lock, Mai thus, Meibom,
Morrison, Muller, Napier, Nose, Notker, Owen, Pell, Pfaff, Plucker,
Smith. (?) Peyer, Schneider, Southcott, Spencer, Stahl, Steiner,

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 27

Swedenborg, Thomson, Tyson, Victoria, Wagner, Waller, Ward,
Washington, Weber, Wellington, Werner, Wesley, Wharton, White-
field, Widmanstatt, Willis, Winebrenner, Wolf, Zwingli.

X-B: (16) Chaucer, Dryden. (17) Bobadil, Brobdignag, Lilli-
put, Milton. (18) Boswell, Byron, Carlyle, Dickens, Falstaff,
Goethe, Grandison, Johnson, Macaulay, Malaprop, Marlowe, Peck-
sniff, Pickwick, Ruskin, Skelton, Tennyson, Thackeray, Wordsworth,
Worm. ( ?) Shakespere, Werther.

X-C: (15) Ludgate. (16) Hess, John, Netherland, North-
umbria, Smalcald, Somerset. (17) Arcadia, Bath-on-, Eton, Grub-
street, Iceland, Lapland. (18) Flandric-, Girton, Grubstreet-on-,
Hanover, Huron, Idrial, Liverpudl- (Liverpool), London, London-
ens-, Marlbur-, Melton, Niagar-, Portland, Purbeck, Snowdon,
Tasmania, Thames. (?) Tex-, Virgin-, Vandeman-, Waterland,
Westphal-.

X-D: (15) Americ-, Fris-, Goth, Lap, Merc-. (16) Guelph,
Lombard-in-, Morav-, Ostrogoth-. (17) Angl-, Scandanav-. (18)
Cockney, Lollard, Lombard, Odin, Quaker. (?) Swab-, Valkyr-,
Varang-, Waldens-, Wallach-.

-ana (usually written -iana)

Source: Latin -ana in the neuter plural of adjectives in -anus.

Function: Forms nouns expressing: notable sayings of a person,
literary trifles, anecdotes, a collection of such, or literary gossip.

Note : The use of this suffix is much more frequent than the few examples
listed would iudicate.

Class I. (18) fist.
Class III: (17) scrap.

Class X: X-A: (?) Wagner. X-B: (18) Carlyle. (?) Shake-
spere.

-don

Source: French -ion; Latin -io, -ionem.

Function: Forms substantives of condition or action.

Notes: In Latin, this suffix was usually added to verbs with the parti-
cipial or supine stem in t-, s-, or x-. Hence the more usual forms of this
suffix are in -Hon, -ation. In English hybrids, the suffix -ion occurs chiefly
in dialect words. In this list the words are written in. full.

28 ENGLISH WOKDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class I: (17) ramscallion. (W) manishon, pantron, stullion
(stool).

Class III: (16) tatterdemalion. (?) staggon. (W) skinnion.

Class VI: (16) slabberdegullion, slubberdeguUion.

Class VII: (W) cruncheon, etion, trullion.

Class IX: (14) murgeon. (15) curmudgeon, rampallion, run-
nion. (16) flabergudgion, flabergullion, pancheon, rumbullion.

(17) hallion, humdudgeon, prillion, punchion. (18) guUion, slum-
gullion. (W) ballion, brallion, brullions, bullyon, callion, daugeon,
duderon, dullion, dwallion, grullion, hudderon, huncheon, lapscal-
lion, lencheon, mudgeon, nallion, nompion, punnion, rammlequishon,
rampadgeon, rumpullion, scrallion, shumpguUion, skincheon, stran-
guUion, struncheon, sumphion, tregallion, witheron. (S) hum-
durgeon, widgeon, wanion.

-ation

Source: Latm -ation -em.

Function: Forms nouns of action equivalent to those with the native
ending -ing.

Class I: (15) blind. (16) roar. (17) flutter, fret, name, starve.

(18) backward, float, hide, smother, talk, thunder. (W) fair,
harbour, tear, totter.

Class II: (15) devil-in- (after divination), school. (W) pine.

Class III: (17) imbank. (W) jaw-b-.

Class IV: (?) stall.

Class VII: (17) fluster, mutter. (18) blubber. (W) potter-
ashun.

Class VIII: (18) dezinc.

Class IX: (16) chirp. (17) chat, fidget, flirt, fuss, puzzle,
scatter, scrawl, tarn (darn), titter. (18) bluster, bother, chatter,
darn, flabbergast, highfalutin, pester, pother, roundabout. ( ?) spif-
licate, transmogrify. (W) balder, blather, scran-, tatther. (S)
conflab.

Class X: X-A: Pattison.

-lion

Source: French -Hon; Old French -don; Middle English -do{u)n;
Latin -tio, -tidn-em.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 29

Function: Forms nouns of action equivalent to those with the native
ending -ing.

Notes: Forms in -ition are included. Indication of such forms is
made by adding an -i- to the stem. Some of the dialectic forms here listed
should perhaps appear rather under the suffix -ion.

Class VII : (W) scrimp-.

Class IX: (18) connip-, contrap-. (W) colliebuc-, debuc-,
boll-i.

-et

Source: Old French -et, -ete (feminine) from common Romanic -itto,
'itta, of unknown origin.

Function: Forms diminutives from substantives.

Notes: In many cases, this diminutive force is no longer felt. The
following list does not include words with the denominative suffix -et (as
in thicket, etc.) which is, at least in part, of Germanic origin. This suffix as
a living formative has been replaced almost completely by the suffix -let which
grew out of it.

Class I: (13) bundle, hole, sik- (sic, a stream). (15) brook,
haven, hill, sip. (16) bladder, crock, crutch, hop, knitch, man,
moon, run, smick-. (17) leaf, ridge. (18) ankle, elf, feather, fish,
horn, midge, prickle, tail. (?) spinner, swimmer. (W) crumb,
wedge.

Class II: (15) pope. (17) devil, fever.

Class III: (14) skip, targe. (15) busk. (16) fleck. (18)
scrap.

Class IV: (15) carcan-, cark-.

Class V: (17) gurgle.

Class VI: (15) pack, rill, smile. (16) snip. (17) bumpkin,
gaffle. (18) curl.

Class VII: (15) flap. (16) blush. (17) knickknack. (?) strip,
whiff. (W) lug-, snib.

Class IX: (13) hog. (14) lip. (15) smatch-. (16) clasp, flip,
fop, grindle, hobgoblin, nipple, pun, sneck-. (17) nack, nidge, sling.
(18) munch. (?) trickle. (W) (forms written in full) dulget,
gabbets, knocket, lackits, nappet, noppet, padget, scrimmet, scrinch-
et, scruppit, shacket, trinket, trippet, woofit.

Class X: X-A: (16) Carl. (17) Jill.

30 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

-ette

Source: French -ette.

Function: Forms diminutives, often with the depreciative sense of an
imitation, or a substitute for.

Class I: (15) brok-el-. (18) leader, leather, linen, silver,
town.

Class II: (14) tile. (18) ginger.

Class IX: (15) punq- (punk). (18) flannel.

-let

Source: Old French -et, -ete, in words in which an -el, preceded the -et-

Function: Chiefly used to form substantives with a diminutive sense.

Occasionally it is added to substantives which denote the parts of the body

to form the names for articles of adornment or attire — probably on the

analogy of bracelet.

Class I: (15) brand, breast, haven, head, ring, town. (16)
brain, brood, crumb, drop, ear, gut, king, mark, scrape. (17) back,
cloud, horn, leaf, path, ridge, run. (18) arrow, bead, beam, bench,
bird, black, blade, bone, book, borough, bower, brook, chip, cook,
cove, crab, deer, dove, dream, fang, feather, finger, fin, fish, flake,
flood, god, gos-, green, hair, heart, helm, hoof, hook, house, knee, lip,
loaf, lord, moon, mouse, neck, nut, oak, oath, ooze, pig, pike, play,
pond, puff, queen, rod, roof, rook, room, seam, seed, shag, sleeve,
snake, song, thing, thought, thread, throat, toad, tooth. ( ?) beard,
ship, spark, spring, star, stem, stream, swift, thorn, wart, wave, wit,
wrist. (W) flock, heap, rind (run).

Class II: (14) rose. (16) mount. (18) altar, bishop, dish,
font, mound, nun, pipe, plant, priest, purse, sack.

Class III: (15) scrap, skin. (17) root. (18) bush, leg, nook.
( ?) squeak, stalk, wing. (W) haag, snib, stack.

Class IV: (17) band, scale. (18) group, robber.

Class V: (15) creek. (18) flask.

Class VI: (18) loop.

Class VII: (17) gaff. (18) cock (haycock), rag, tip.

Class IX: (15) tag. (16) drib. (18) babe, flag, groom, pie,
pun, shark, skunk, snob. (W) baik-, brott-, Esk, kim-.

Class X: X-C: (17) Landau.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 31

-/2/, usually written -ify

Source: French -fier from Latin -ficdre.

Function: Forms verbs with the senses: to make, to produce, to bring
to a certain state, to make a specified thing, to assimilate to the character
of something, to invest with certain attributes.

Class I: (15) dolt, fish, nit. (16) dull, god, horn, knee, knight,
lady, lant, lord, meat, nettle, pock, sleep, smooth, thin. (17) clothe,
filth, flesh, flint, man, moon, mist, tin, town. (18) ass, coal, death,
dummy, fist, frost, ghostly, goose, hungry, moss, pretty, redtape,
shabby, sickly, smoke, topsyturvy. (?) speech, star, steel, stone,
wit. (W) gall, laugh, mois-, rain, right, silly, stun, thunder, twist,
word.

Class II: (16) devil, nun, pope. (18) gigant, temple. (W)
copper.

Class III: (16) happy. ( ?) stilth, ugly. (W) scare.

Class IV: (15) bawd.

Class VI: (18) brandy, dottr-, monkey, mynheer.

Class VII: (16) clown. (17) gull, mud, snug. (18) booze,
nasty. (W) lass.

Class VIII: (?) zinc.

Class IX: (17) grog. (18) caucus, dandy, flimsy, fuss, punch,
quiz, flunkey, tipsy. (?) transmogr-. (W) dabr-, dors-, glaumer,
jittey, rand, scat, wheeze.

Class X: X-A: (18) Queen Anne, Tammany.

X-B: (18) Grundy.

X-D: (15) French. (16) Dutch. (17) Angl-, Scotch. (18)
Anglic-, Cockney, Engl-. ( ?) Yankee.

-fication

Source: Latin -ficdtion-em, the regular formative of nouns of action
from verbs in -ficdre.

Function: Forms nouns of action from verbs in -fy, except such as
represent Latin verbs in -facere.

Class I: (17) smooth. (18) dull, frost, horn, moan, scratch,
topsyturvy. ( ?) speech, steel.
Class II: (16) angel.
Class III: (?) ugly.
Class IV: (18) allod.

32 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class VII: (18) loll, rumble.

Class VIII: (?) zinc.

Class IX: (18) dandy, fuss, jackass, quizz, tipsy. (W) howdy.

Class X: X-D: (18) Angl-, French, Scotch. (?) Whig.

-ite

Source: French -ite; Latin -ita which was adopted from the Greek -vriys.

Function: Forms adjectives and substantives with the senses: con-
nected with or belonging to.

Notes: The earlier instances of proper names with this suffix form the
names of religious sects. A considerable proportion of the personal and
place names in -ite form the names of minerals, although the suffix is still
much used to form the names of followers of religious sects, political groups,
schools of medicine, or any type of theory.

Class I: (18) hell, midshipman, queen, silver. (?) turf.
(S) hive.

Class II: (17) ark. (18) fever, pit. (S) kitchen.

Class III: (18) geyser. (?) tungst(en), tyr. (S) hit.

Class VII: (17) mug.

Class VIII: (17) fels. (18) bismuth, cobalt, nickel, quartz,
Schiller, schorlom. ( ?) strahl, wolfram, zink.

Class IX: (17) fogram, hawcub-, snob. (18) flunkey, hub,
mahogany, totem. ( ?) torb-.

Class X: X-A: (15) Mennon. (16) Cromwell, Gresham,
Teckel. (17) George, Glass, Macmillan, Mason, Perkin. (18)
Aiken, Alger, Allan, Apjohn, Arvedson, Barnhard, Bentham, Berg-
man, Brewster, Brook, Bruce, Brush, Bryan, Bunsen, Burk, Camp-
bell, Catlin, Children, Chilton, Church, Clay, Cleveland, Coleman,
Compton, Cook, Dana, Darby, Davidson, Dawson, Darwin, Dickson,
Ehrenberg, Ekberg, Ekmann, Ferber, Ferguson, Field, Fillow,
Fischer, Fowler, Fox, Fresleben, Fuchs, Funk, Gahn, Gerbhard,
Gersdorff, Gibbs, Gieseck, Gilbert, Glauber, Gmelin, Graham,
Granger, Greenock, Greenough, Groth, Haidinger, Hanks, Hannay,
Harrington, Harris, Hatchett, Hauer, Haughton, Hausmann,
Hayden, Hedenberg, Hellhof, Henwood, Herder, Herschel, Hess,
Heuland, Hicks, Hidden, Hielm, Hisinger, Hope, Hough, Hubner,
Humboldt, Hume, Hunter, Huyssen, lies, Irving, Jameson, Jefferis,
Jefferson, Jellett, Jenkins, Johann, Jordan, Kant, Keilhau, Kieser,

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 33

Kilham, Kirwan, Kobell, Koenlein, Koettig, Koninck, Krantz,
Kremers, Krenner, Kroehnk, Kupfer, Lang, Latroh, Laur, Lawrence,
Lawson, Laxmann, Leder, Lehunt, Leidy, Lenz, Leonard, Lettsom,
Levy, Liebener, Liebig, Lillian, Lill, Lindacker, Lindsay, Linton,
Livingston, Logan, Lossen, Lowe, Lowig, Lucas, Ludd, Ludlam,
Ludwig, Mallard, Marcy, Macadam, Marten, Martin, Maxim, Mes-
mer, Michaelson, Mix, Mormon, Mosander, Murchison, Naumann,
Newman, Niven, Northrup, Nose, Nuttal, Oldham, Owen, Pallas,
Paris, Peal, Peckham, Peel, Pentland, Pickering, Pitt, Plane, Powell,
Price, Prince, Pussey, Queene Anne, Ralston, Rapp, Rock, Rosel,
Sartor, Schweitzer, Seybert, Shays, Silliman, Simeon, Smithson,
Somerville, Scheel, Scheerer, Scheffer, Schreibers, Shulz, Thomson.
( ?) Stuven, Steinmann, Stornberg, Streng, Studer, Svanberg, Trask,
Troger, Troost, Turner, Tyson, Trippke, Ubbe, Ulex, Ullman, Urban,
Vogel, Voglian, Wagner, Webner, Wells, Werthman, Wharton, Whit-
field, Warren, Wavell, Webster, Wehrl, Werner, Wheeler, Whewell,
Whitney, Willem, Witham, Wither, Woodward, Wulfen, Wurtz,
Wycliff, Zeuner, Zinken, Zois.

X-B: (18) Byron, Carlyle, Goethe, Grundy, Thackeray.

X-C: (16) Bedlam. (18) Albert, Alston, Annaberg, Arandel,
Arksute, Barnhard, Bast, Bolton, Bytown, Carrol, Clausthal, Colo-
rado, Condur, Cromford, Danbury, Dannermore, Devon, Dudley,
Dupworth, Ehl, Epsom, Fahlun, Fairfield, Farg, Freiberg, Frugard,
Franklin, Garnsdorf, Geyer, Girton, Goslar, Gotham, Greenland,
Grengasberg, Grunau, Gresham, Hall, Haytor, Hudson, Huron,
Idrial, Ion, Iser, Jacobs, Killin, Knoxville, Konigsberg, Labrador,
Lanark, Langban, Lansford, Lauban, Leadhill, Leeds, Lehrback,
Lennel, Leopold, Limbach, Liskeard, Lolling, Lydd, Macon, Magnol,
Matlock, Melon, Menachan, Miasc, Montana, Morven, Mottram,
Newton, Nor (way), Oxhaver, Ozark, Pennin, Penn, Plymouth,
Redruth, Saxon, Schwartz, Scoville, Solvsberg, Tasman, Tavistock.
(?) Staffel, Torban, Uintah, Utah, Voges, Warwick, Washington,
Wittichen, Wolfsberg, Webster, Westen, Willjam, Wyoming, Ytterby,
Ytter, Zinnwald, Zuny.

-lite

Source: French -lite from Greek XlOos.
Function: Forms names of minerals and fossils.

34 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class X: X-A: (18) Dana-o-, Hatchet-o-, Klaproth-o-, Thom-
sen-o-. (?) Wurtz-i-.
X-C: (?) Utah.

-ize

Source: Late Latin -izare from Greek -t^ctv, formative derivative of
verbs.

Function: Forms verbs denoting : to make; to conform to; to charge,
impregnate, or treat with; etc.

Class I: (15) ape, fire, god, inkhorn, peacock, sinew. (16)
drunkard, gospel, heathen, mongrel, silver. (17) iron, nightingale,
sister. (18) blackguard, dismurder, doggerel, midland, naked,
northern, nothing, sailor, topsyturvy. ( ?) southern, wanton, west-
em, woman.

Class II: (16) angel, apostol, capon, devil, gigant, lobster,
pope, temple. (18) angelic, anthem, copper, rosewood.

Class III: (15) sluggard. (16) dastard, husband, husbandr-,
scantel. (18) ragamuffin.

Class IV: (15) beruffian, guerdon. (16) blazon, gallant, garri-
son, herald, marquetry, poltroon, regnard. (17) boulevard, guard-
ian. (18) bacon, garden, hamlet, scorbut. (?) standard.

Class V: (17) pudding. (18) nebul.

Class VII: (16) huckster, niggard. (18) dock, pamper.
(S) absk-.

Class VIII: (18) kindergarten, nickel, od, odyl, schiller.

Class IX: (16) parrot. (17) caps-. (18) conundrum, dandy,
flunkey, mahogany,, pemmican, teetotal, teetotum. (W) scadder,
tauther, tippan, tove-. (S) scrouper.

Class X: X-A: (16) Calvin, Cromwell, Freder(ic), Hobbs.
(17) Rumford, Spier. (18) Banting, Barnum, Bowdler, Burnett,
Darwin, EHzabethan, Franklin, Gladstone, Graham, Granger,
Hansard, Harvey, Hausmann, Hegelian, Hegel, Jansen, Joe-Miller,
Kyan, Lister, Lutheran, Malthusian, Macadam, Merry Andrew,
Mesmer, Morgan, Nessler, Newman, Owen, Pattison, Payn, Perkin,
Politer, Pullman, Roentgen, Tammany, Tarlton. ( ?) Tyler.

X-B: (15) Martin. (17) Johnson, Liliputian. (18) Boswell,
Byron, Euphu-, Grandison-ian-, Milton, Ruskin, Skelton. (?)
Shakespere.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 35

X-C: (16) Flushing, Norfolk. (17) Hanover-ian-, London.
(18) Brummagen, New England, Oxonian.

X-D: (16) Angl-, Norman. (17) Anglic-, Goth-ic-. (18)
American, Cockney, Finn-ic-. French, Lollard, Moravia-n-, Quaker,
Saxon.

-ization

Source: -ize plus -ation.

Function: Forms nouns of action from verbs in -ize.

Class I: (18) desilver, mongrel.

Class IV: (18) hamlet. (?) standard.

Class VII: (18) dock.

Class VIII: (18) nickel, odyl, schiller.

Class IX: (18) pemmican.

Class X: X-A: (18) Bowdler, Faraday, Franklin, Granger,
Hansard, Hausmann, Jonathan, Macadam, Mesmer, Hessler, Patti-
son. Politer, Tammany, Tyndall.

X-C: (18) London.

X-D: (18) American, Anglic, Norman, Quaker.

•4sm

Source: French -isme; Latin -ismus adopted from Greek -Lcrfios,
forming nouns of action from verbs in -i^civ. Also in some cases the aUied
suffix -i(Tfm{r) which more fully expressed the finished act.

Function: Forms simple nouns of action naming the process, the
completed action, or its result; expressing the action or conduct of a class
of persons; forming the name of a system of theory or practice; or denoting
a pecuharity or characteristic.

Class I: (15) inkhom, mongrel. (16) heathen, doggerel.
(17) buck, ghost, norland, maiden, old-maid, self, silly. (18) any-
thingarian, ape, beaver, blackguard, brethren, busybody, butterfly,
cocksure, conacre, crank, dead-alive, deadhead, deadletter, deaf-
mute, dog-in-the-manger, do-nothing, don't-care, drudge, dullard,
dummy, fiend, firebrand, folklore, freesoil, friend, gander, go-ahead,
goody-goody, goody, greenback, greenhorn, half-and-half, hole-and-
corner, holiday, horsy, in-and-out, know-nothing, lady, landlord, losel,
man-of-the-world, middle-age, middleman, milksop, newfangled, no-
go, nothingarian, nothing, numbskull, oldwoman, old-world, open-

36 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

air, other, other-world, overseer, owl, peacock, penny-a-liner, pretty,
red-tape, seeker, silver, smart, this-world, tidy, three-corner, toady,
topsyturvy. ( ?) shepherd, shoddy, southern, spread-eagle, stalwart,
Sunday, true, we, werwulf, western, whiteboy. (S) we-gotism
(after egotism).

Class II: (16) anchoret, anchor, devil, gigantin(e). (17) monk.
(18) copperhead, devil-may-care, gigant, millocrat, pope, priest,
schoolboy, schoolgirl, schoolmaster.

Class III: (17) dash, rake. (18) bully, bushwhacker, club,
happy-go-lucky, low-church, low-churchman, ragamuffin, skin-
flint, tatterdemalion. ( ?) viking. (S) leg.

Class IV: (15) braggad. (16) bankrupt, braggadocian, brag-
gart, poltroon, regnard, renard. (17) blockhead. (18) allodial,
border, filibuster, lobby, messmate. (?) spy, tunnel.

Class V: (16) beggar. (18) pickpocket, puppet.

Class VI: (16) dotterel, ranter. (17) quack. (18) boss, dap-
per, dotard, monkey, quacksalver, ramrod, slip-shod.

Class VII: (17) boy.

Class VIII: (18) kindergarten, junker, odyl.

Class IX: (16) babe, jobbernowl, pedlar, scoundrel. (17)
fribble, girl, hog, parrot, prig, totem. (18) baby, bore, dandy,
donkey, dowdy, dude, dunderhead, fad, flunkey, fogey, funny, fuzzy,
gigman, haw-haw, hobbledehoy, hobby, hobgoblin, hoity-toity,
hoodlum, hoyden, humbug, jackadandy, jackass, jingo, job, jockey,
jog-trot, jumbo, jumper, kailyard, lad, laggard, larrikin, loafer,
mugwump, mumbo-jumbo, namby-pamby, niminy-piminy, ninny,
noodle, powwow, rowdy, slang, snob, tadpole, teetotal, teetotum,
tomboy, toper. (S) daddy.

Class X: X-A: (15) Calvin, Luther-an-, Schwenkfeld-ian-, Scog-
gin. (16) Boehmen, Brown, Cromwell, Hobb-ian-, Ilobb(s), Luther,
Mennon. (17) Luther-ian-, Sandeman-ian-. (18) Banting, Baxter,
Bentham, Berkley, Berkle(y)-ian-, Bleton, Bowdler, Boycott,
Braid, Burk, Chesterfield, Darby, Darwin, Faraday, Franklin,
Garrison, Gladston(e)-ian-, Graham, Hamilton, Hegel-ian-, Hegel,
Hildebrand, Hobbes-ian-, Hopkins-ian-, Hume, Hutchison-ian-,
Hutton-ian-, Irving, Jefferson-ian-, Joe-Miller, Kant-ian-, Kant,
Laud, Leibnitz-ian-, Ling, Lister, Lock-ian-, Ludd, Malthus-ian-,

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 37

Maseeh, Mesmer, Mormon, Morrison-ian-, Muggleton-ian-, New-
man, Newton-ian-, Orange, Owen, Paddy, Peel, Perkin, Pinkerton,
Pitt, Pussey, Queen Anne, Rembrandt, Roentgen, Schwendener,
Tammany, Thomson-ian-. (?) Spencer-ian-, Stahl-ian-, Stahl,
Swedenborg-ian-, Tyler, Wagner, Weismann, Wemer-ian-, Wesley-
an-, Woden, Wolff-ian-.

X-B: (15) Chaucer, Euphu-, Martin. (16) Dryden. (17)
Bobadil. (18) Boswell, Byron, Caliban, Carlyle, Dogberry, Dryas-
dust, Goeth-ian-, Grandison-ian-, Grundy, John-Bull, Johnson,
Macaulay, Malaprop, Marlowe, Mawworm, Merry-Andrew, Milton,
Munchausen, Pecksniff-ian-, Pecksniff, Pickwick-ian-, Ruskin, Ten-
nyson-ian, Tennyson, Tom-and-Jerry. (?) Shakesper-ian-, Swing,
Werther.

X-C: (17) Herrnhut. (18) Bedlam, Brummagen, Chippendale,
Hernhut-t-ian-, London, Manchester, Mohock, New England, North-
umbrian, Oxford, Plymouth. ( ?) Canterbur-ian-, Vandemonia-n-.

X-D: (16) Norman, Quaker. (17) American, French, Goth,
Scotch. (18) Anglican, Anglo-Saxon, Cockney, Dane, English,
Guelph, Hottentot, Lollard, Lombard, Moravia-n-, Odin, Saxon,
Scandanavia-n-. Shaker. (?) Vandal, Whig, Yankee.

-4cism
Source: -ic plus -ism.

Class I: (?) witty.

Class IV: (16) scorbut.

Class X: X-D: (16) Angl-. (17) Goth. (18) Dane.

-ist

Source: French -is^e; Latin -tsia; Greek -mtti}?.

Function: Forms substantives on verbs or adjectives or nouns with the
senses: a simple agent; a person who practices some method or art or who
studies some branch of knowledge; an adherent or professor of some creed,
doctrine, or system; one whose business is to deal with the thing mentioned
in the base of the word.

Class I: (15) heathen, inkhom, queen. (16) guilt, harp,
health, heart, iron, newfangle, self, shadow, time. (17) shallow.
(18) atonement, cram, doggerel, fallow, fern, fight, folklore, football.

38 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

freetrade, free-will, gospel, horn, nothing, offal, red-tape, seascape,
shadowgraph, silver, soap, topsyturvy. (?) watercolor.

Class II: (16) anchor, angel, cowl, cymbal, kitchen. (17)
orchard. (18) bishop, camel.

Class III: (17) club. (18) gun.

Class IV: (16) garb. (17) garden. (18) allodial, herald, group,
lobby, rink, saloon. ( ?) braggart, tunnel.

Class V: (18) nebul.

Class VI: (18) etch, landscape, snap-shot.

Class VII: (18) rap.

Class VIII: (?) zither.

Class IX: (16) quagmire. (17) chatter. (18) euchre, fad,
fluke, hobby, hurdy-gurdy, jingo, kodak, ping-pong, pooh-pooh,
slang, teetotal, toboggan, totem. ( ?) volapuk. (S) scatter-ation-.

Class X: X-A: (15) Barrow, Brown, Calvin, Scoggin. (16)
Cromwell, Darby, Gomar, Hobb(s), Jansen, Lancaster, Lull-ian-,
Lull, Mennon. (17) Franklin, Laud, Lock. (18) Bleton, Darwin,
Hume, Kant, Luther, Mesmer, Mormon, Newton, Orange, Owen,
Perkin, Pusey, Queen Anne, Rap. ( ?) Wagner, York.

X-B: (15) Martin. (18) Byron, Euphu-, Grundy, John Bull,
Milton.

X-C: (15) Gotham. (16) Gresham. (18) Manchester,
Oxford, Plymouth. ( ?) Wykeham.

X-D: (15) Saxon. (16) Norman. (17) October. (18)
American, Angloman-, Anglophobe, Goth-ic-, Lollard, Odin.

-al

Source: Latin -dl-em, an adjective suffix. Many of these adjectives in
-dl were used substantively.

Function: Forms adjectives or substantives; the adjectives having
the senses: of the kind of, pertaining to; the nouns indicating: pertaining
to, or serving as simple noims of action on the verb.

Notes: Bridal and burial simulate this ending though the -al in this
case is from Old English -els. Probably these two words have aided the
prevalence of nouns of action in -al in modem English. Housal may be
worn down from household.

Class I: (16) bequeath, buy, house, renew. (17) bestow, reed.
(18) abide, beget, behead, betroth, forbid, hundred, indraw, outwit,
remind, thing, throat, tide. (?) withdraw.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 39

Class II: (15) rose. (16) pope, provost, plant. (18) creed,
pound, priest, prior.

Class III: (18) arouse, croup.

Class IV: (15) burgh, eschew. (16) disguise. (18) abet,
array, rebut, marquis.

Class VI : (18) margrave.

Class VII: (18) drift.

Class VIII: (17) bismuth, carouse.

Class IX: (18) capsize, flirt-ation-, flunkey.

Class X: X-A: (18) Tammany.

-ic

Source: French -ique from Latin -ic-its which is either of Latin origin
or adopted from Greek -tK-os.

Function: Forms primarily adjectives (many of which are used sub-
stantively) with the senses: after the manner of; of the nature of; per-
taining to.

Class I: (15) heathen. (17) alderman, coxcomb. (18) elf,
fist, freshman, island, shadowgraph.

Class II: (16) anchoret, gigant. (18) alorcin, cook, cymbal.

Class III: (17) skald. (18) geyser. (?) tungsten, tungst (en)-.

Class IV: (?) renard.

Class VII: (16) scoff.

Class VIII: (17) bismuth. (18) cobalt, feldspath, gneiss,
gneiss-it-, hornblend, nickel, od, odyl, quartz-it-. (?) spath, wolf-
ram, zinc.

Class IX: (17) namby-pamby. (18) dandy, gigman, pun, rig-
marole, sachem, theodolite, totem.

Class X: X-A: (18) Bentham, Faraday, Franklin, Herschel,
Hildebrand, Luther-an-, Mesmer, Mormon, Ohm, Skoda.

X-B: (17) Hudibras, Milton. (18) Byron, Dryasdust, Mephis-
tophel(es), Skelton.

X-C: (16) Iceland. (17) Lapland, Menachan-it-. (18)
Devon, Greenland, Labrador-it-. ( ?) Yosemite, Yttr-.

X-D: (16) Fin, Norweig-, Scan-. (17) Norman. (18) Anglo-
phobe, Fries-, Guelph, Hottentot, Odin, Odin-it-, Ostmann, Ostro-
goth, Quaker. (?) Lapp.

40 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

-atic

Source: Latin -dtic-us.

Function: Forms adjectives indicating: of, of the kind of.

Class I: (?) truism. (W) fall (after paralytic).

-istic

Source: French -istique, Latin -isticus from Greek -to-rtKos.
Function: Forms adjectives, chiefly from nouns in -ist or -ism.

Class I: (18) folklore.

Class IX: (18) flunkey, jingo, totem.

Class X: X-A: (18) Darwin, Calvin, Perkin.

X-B: (18) Euphu-, Mephistophel-.

-istical

Source : -istic plus -al.

Function: Forms adjectives which serve as secondary forms to those
in -istic.

Class X: X-A: (16) Calvin. (17) Hobb(s), Jansen. (18)
Pusey.

X-B: (18) Euphu-.

X-D: Quaker.

-ical

Source: -ic plus -al: late Latin adjectives in -alis on substantives in
-ic-us.

Function: Forms secondary adjectives to those in -ic with the sense:
practically connected with, dealing with.

Class I: (15) heathen. (16) alderman, nit. (17) coxcomb,
fist. (18) drudge, noseology, tideology, toplofty, topsyturvy.

Class II: (15) angel. (16) anchoret, gigant. (17) aloe-t-.

Class III: (16) husband. (18) club. (?) whimsy.

Class IV: (16) herald. (17) auberg, bandbox. (18) mor-
ganat-.

Class V: (17) puppet.

Class VI: (18) slapdash.

Class VII: (16) clown. (17) knick-knack, scurvy, scurvet-.

Class VIII: (?) odyl.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 41

Class IX: (16) fop. (17) conundrum, hobbyhorse, lacka-
daisy, namby-pamby, rumbust-. (18) dandiacal (after hypochon-
driacal), fubsy, gigman, hoax, pun, quizz, titbit. (W) camstar-,
frust-.

Class X: X-A: (18) Darwin, Mesmer, Pusey-it-.

X-B: (15) Skelton. (18) Byron, Hudibras, Milton.

X-D: (15) Saxon. (16) Goth.

Source: The -e of Anglo-French law terms in such pairs as apelour,
Appellor; apel^, Appellee.

Function: Forms substantives denoting the passive party, or the
indirect agent, or the recipient of an action.

Notes: This suffix, like -ish (verbal), perhaps should be considered
rather as an Enghsh than a Romance suffix. Words in -ee^ are not included
for the reason that the origin of this suffix is unknown.

Class I: (17) draw. (18) beat, borrow, cram, curse, gale,
hang, kiss, laugh, nickname, send. ( ?) stare, write.
Class III: (17) snub. (18) loan, lug. (?) trust.
Class IV: (16) pawn. (18) abandon, allot. (?) warrant.
Class VI: (18) pump.

Class VII: (16) nod. (17) rub. (18) gaze.
Class IX: (18) banter, chat, flirt, gag, hoax, jilt, kick, quizz, tip.
Class X: X-A: (18) Boycott, Mesmer-ize-.

-ale (nominal)

Source: Latin substantives in -atus, -a, -um.

Function : Forms substantives denoting: an officer, an office, a function;
participial nouns; chemical terms.

Class I: (18) malt.

Class II: (18) angel, deacon.

Class IV: (15) marquis. (17) margrave. (18) marshal.

Class VI: (?) stadholder.

Class VIII: (18) bismuth, cobalt. (?) wolfram, zinc.

-ate (verbal)

Source: Participial adjectives in -ate from Latin -atus, -a, -urn.
Function: Forms causative verbs.
Note: All forms listed are written in full.

42 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class I: (17) tillerate. (18) titivate. (W) bloviate, fawni-
, cate.

Class VII: (17) flustrate.

Class IX: (?) spiflicate. (W) frimicate, gavelate, titervate.
(S) absquatulate, bamblustercate, conflabberate, flusticate, rum-
busticate, transfisticate.

Class X: X-A: (18) Calvinisticate.

-ade

Source: French -ade adopted from Provengal, Spanish, or Portuguese
-ada or Italian -ata from Latin -ata.

Function: Forms substantives analogous to the past participle, and to
substantives in -ate, indicating: an action done, or the product of an action or
process on raw material.

Class II: (17) devil. (18) ginger.

Class IV: (16) block. (17) brag.

Class V: (16) buskin.

Class IX: (18) tomboy. (W) bulgran-.

Class X: X-B: (18) Ruskin.

X-C: (17) Carron.

-ado

Source: (1) Spanish or Portuguese -ado, masculine of the past parti-
ciple. (2) An ignorant, sonorous refashioniag of substantives in -ade.
Function: As in -ade.

Class I : (15) prick.
Class III: (16) scab.
Class IV: (?) sprus-.
Class VI: (16) scrub.
Class IX: (S) snipper.

-ard, -art

Source: Old French -ard, -art adopted from the Grermanic -hard, -hart, a
frequent ending of personal names.

Function: Forms derivative nouns which have an intensive, often
contemptuous, force.

Notes: It has in some cases replaced the earlier agent noun in -er, -ar,
as in braggard. Old Enghsh -hierde is in some cases assimilated to -ard, as
in buUard, hoggard, gossard, piggard." The forms in this Ust are written in
fuU.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 43

Class I: (130 foumart, losard, tailard, snivelard. (14) dullard,
gozzard. (15) dizzard, drunkard, gissard, hasard. (16) haggard,
piggard. (?) shovelard, spittard, springard, stinkard. (W) gal-
lard, liard, southard, speddart, stubbard.

Class II: (14) moultard. (15) popelard. (W) cheesard.

Class III: (13) mokerard, sluggard. (14) dastard, dasart,
scallard, scabbard. (15) luggard. (18) bullard. (?) staggard.
(W) raggard.

Class IV: (14) holard. (16) guisard, mazard.

Class VI: (13) dotard, pollard. (15) blinkard. (16) skinkard.

Class VII: (13) niggard. (15) lubbard, lusard. (16) babe-
lard, limpard. (W) lollard, mouldard, smuggard, sprayart, squin-
nerd.

Class IX: (13) scotart. (14) cobbard, haskard, mobard,
nekard, popard. (15) bumbard, fazart. (16) doddard, fretchard,
hoggard, loutard, luskard, nazzard, puggard. (17) buzzard, laggard,
mennard. (W) bildert, callards, chackart, clunkart, culbard, dolt-
ard, fizzert, flazzard, jabart, libbard, naggart, panshard, plunkart,
smatchard, sniggert, snubbert, staupard, stilpert, stoddard, stumpart,
stunkard, tinkeard, tizzard, winnard, woolert. (S) mizzard, uzzard.

-ant

Source: French -ant from Latia -antem, -entem, the ending of the
present participle; or directly from Latin -antem.

Function : Forms participial adjectives (and often substantives) . More
frequently it expresses a personal or material agent.

Class I: (16) forbear, prick. (18) be. (W) brass, blic-.
Class III: (18) grasp.
Class VI: (16) dote.

Class VII: (15) nod, scamp (burlesque after rampant). (16)
flip.

Class IX: (16) fitch-, rouse. (W) haff-.

-ance

Source: French -ance; Latin -dnt-ia, -ent-ia.

Function: Forms nouns of action as in Old French, and nouns indi-
cating state or quahty as in Latin.

44 ENGLISH WOKDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Class I: (14) further, hinder, tarry, thole. (15) abear, forbear,
ower. (16) abide, abode, better, forbid, lead, overbear, quicken,
renew. (17) bear, endear, farther. (18) bid. (?) shut, sunder,
utter, wield, yield. (W) afford, have, new, out, outher (either),
over, precunn-.

Class II: (16) angel.

Class III: (15) rid. (18) glitter. (W) thrive.

Class IV: (15) guard. (18) eschew.

Class V: (13) cumber. (15) ask.

Class IX: (15) pester. (W) far-, flare, Aug, gree, hidl-, trol-
lower-.

-ancy

Source : Latin -antia.

Function: Forms abstract substantives expressing: quality, state,
condition.

Class IV: (16) regard. (18) guardi-.
Class V: (17) buoy.
Class VII: (17) flip.
Class IX: (16) blat-.

-ty^ usually written -ity

Source: French -te; Latin -tas.

Function: Forms abstract nouns of quality, state, condition.
Notes: Knightte {-te for -ty), meaning a knight's estate, is, according
to the New English Dictionary, perhaps an error.

Class I: (13) knightte, needful. (14) heavy, holite, nether.
(15) idle. (16) alderman, brittle, cotquean, coxcomb, good, man,
much, sister-nity (after fraternity). (17) colt-e-, coxcomb-ical-,
youthful. (18) cocksure, fickle, go-ahead, mongrel, nostril, thread-
bare. ( ?) shrieval, twitch. (W) neiper-.

Class II: (14) sicker. (15) devil. (16) angel. (17) priest-
ian- (after Christianity).

Class III: (13) scant. (14) seeml-, sere (variety). (17) geld-
ing-e-, odd. (18) whimsical.

Class VII: (18) clever, cleveral.

Class IX: (15) niny-versity (after university). (17) fogram,
queer, quizz. (18) fad, fratch, gigman, lackadaisical, pernick-,

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 45

quizzical. (W) cobbil-, frumm-, heak-, jubber-, nibel-, ramplos-,
thrang-.

Class X: X-D: (18) Anglic, Cockneycal, Gothic.

-ive

Source: French -if (feminine -ive) from Latin -Iv-us.

Function: Forms adjectives and substantives with the senses: having
a tendency to; having the nature, character, or quality of; or given to some
action; implying a permanent or habitual quality or tendency.

Note: This suffix is found more frequently in the form -ative.

Class I: (13) mornif (mournful). (16) guest, thought.

Class II: (16) gigant.

Class III: (16) guess.

Class IV: (16) regard.

Class IX: (17) boast. (W) maggot. (S) gryotwist.

-ative

Source: French -atif; Latin -dtlvus, made up of the suffix -Ivus to
participial stems in -at- of verbs in -are, as demonstrare — demonstratlvus.

Function: Forms adjectives from verbs and occasionally from sub-
stantives in -ty, as authority — authoritative.

Note: Such pairs as represent — representative, figure — figurative,
etc., have afforded the analogy for English pairs hke talk — talkative.

Class I: (14) talk. (16) finger, think. (18) float, go-ahead.
(?) write.

Class VII: (15) babble.

Class IX: (16) cobble. (18) chat.

-ure

Source: French -wre; Latin -wra.

Function: Forms nouns indicating: act, process, being; or result (of an
act), state, rank.

Class I: (15) cleft, gift, mis-t- (after mixture). (17) blend,
engrave. (18) fold, grave. (?) waft. (W) ruz- (a fall).
Class II: (17) forclose.

Class IV: (14) seize. (15) blaze. (16) gallant, bankrupt.
Class VII: (17) dismast.
Class IX: (W) fert-, mult-, rumpt-, tons- (hay-crop).

46 ENGLISH WOKDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

-our

Source: Anglo-French -our; Old French -or, -ur, -eor, -eiir.
Function: Forms nouns indicating state.

Notes: Glamour is a corruption of grammar. Behaviour represents
the affiUation of Old French -avoir and English have.

Class I: (14) behave, quench. (15) dread, rerd-.
Class IX: (17) glam-.

-ish (verbal)

Source: Represents French -iss-, extended stem of verbs in -ir, which
originated in the Latin 4sc- of inceptive verbs.

Function: Forms secondary verbs on verbs: as warn — warnish, etc.

Class I : (15) embold. (W) warn.
Class IX : ( W) burn- (to grow fat) .

-rel, usually written -erel

Source: Old French -erel for -erelle in some cases; but in the majority
of instances attached to native stems, or occurring in words of obscure
origin.

Function: Forms diminutives and depreciatives.

Notes: The following list includes dialectic and other words which have
the diminutive or depreciative sense. All forms are written in full.

Class I: (13) doggerel. (14) cockerel, mongrel, shackerel.
(15) puckerel. (16) goatrill, throateral. (17) sickerel. (?) suck-
er el.

Class II: (14) poundrel.

Class III : (W) gaumeril, gauverill, scopperil.

Class VI: (14) dotterel.

Class IX: (14) sauntrell. (15) hoggerel. (W) cotterel,
faderil, gizzeril, haggeral, scamperil, snaggerel, titterel, wamerel.

-oon

Source: French final -on in words stressed on the final syllable.
(2) French suffix -on from Latin -o, -onem.

Function: Forms substantives serving as masculine appellatives, often
contemptuous; diminutives (after French usage); or augmentatives (after
Spanish and ItaHan usage).

Note: All forms are written in full.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 47

Class I: (17) shabaroon (after picaroon). (?) spittoon.
Class IV: (15) poltroon.

Class IX: (18) rantoon. (W) buzzaroon, cankeroon, chessa-
roon, teelytoon. (S) chemiloon.

Source: Old French -eis from common Romanic -ese, Latin -ensem.

Function: Forms adjectives denoting: belonging to or originating in a
place.

Note: This suffix is very frequently used to designate the diction of
certain authors.

Class IX: (18) parrot.
Class X: X-A: (18) Hegel, Bamum.
X-B: (18) Carlyle, Johnson, Macaulay, Ruskin.
X-C: (18) London. (?) Tyrol, Vienn-, Vermont. (S) Fleet
Street.

X-D: (18) Cockney, Hottentot.

Source: French -esque, adopted Italian -esco from mediaeval Latin
-iscus in words adopted from Teutonic. It is probably identical with
Teutonic -isko, English -ish.

Function: Forms adjectives denoting: resembling the style or par-
taking of the characteristics of.

Note: Its most frequent use is in proper names — ^usage adopted from
the Italians.

Class IV: (18) garden (after picturesque).
Class IX: (18) blot, jingo, jumbo.
Class X: X-A: (18) Rembrant.

X-B: (18) Carlyle, Dickens, Macaulay, Marlowe, Ruskin,
Thackeray.

X-C: (18) London.

X-D: (18) Lombard, Norman.

-ia

Somce: Latin and Greek i plus a, the i being the connecting vowel. It
was especially frequent in Greek as the ending of abstract substantives from
adjectives in -os.

48 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Function: Forms substantives, chiefly in the modern Latin terms of
pathology and botany.

Notes: This -ia (through French -ie) is the source of the -y in -ency,
-ography, -ology, etc. With the exception of gigmania with its play on mania,
the words in the following list probably should be considered as modern
Latin rather than as English hybrids.

Class IX: (18) gigman.

Class X: X-A: (17) Garden. (18) Compton, Dahl, Greville,
Houston, Kramer, Mahon. (?) Seymer, Shepherd, Sherer, Short,
Spiegel, Sprekel, Stranger, Stanhope, Sternberg, Stokes, Storer,
Strelitz, Sutherland, Swainson, Swert, Swieten, Tode, Tradescant,
Turner, Ullmann, Ungnad, Vater, Veatch, Volkamer, Waldheim,
Waldstein, Walsh, Washington, Weinmann, Welwitsch, Westring,
Whittlesey, Wickstrom, Wigand, Wills, Willughby, Wister, Wold-
stein, Wolff, Woodford, Woods, Woodward, Wright, Wrisberg,
Yold, Zauschner, Zier, Zinn.

X-C: (?) Tyburn, Ytter.

-ary
Source: Latin -arts.

Function: Forms adjectives with the senses: pertaining to; of the
kind or nature of.

Class I: (16) gospeL (17) hundred. (18) thing.
Class II: (16) kitchen.
Class IX: (16) nod.

-ess (not feminine)

Source: Middle English -esse in substantives adopted from Old French
in -esse, -ece from Latin -itia.

Function : Forms nouns of quality from adjectives.

Class I: (15) good, idle.
Class II: (13) fever.
Class IV: (12) hastive.
Class VII: (16) niggard.

-cide, usually written -icide

Source: French -aide; Latin clda or cidum according as the sense is *^a
slayer" or "a killing."

Function: Forms substantives with the above senses.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 49

Class I: (18) deer, pig.
Class II: (18) gigant.

-um

Source: Latin names of metals in -um.

Class V: (18) nebul.

Class VIII: (?) wolfram.

Class X: X-A (?) Wasa.

X-C: (?) Uintah-er-, Yttr-, Ytterb-.

Source: Latin -cia, -tia; Greek -Kcia, -kox, -tuz, -reta.

Function: Forms substantives indicating: office, state, condition.

Class I: (18) alderman.
Class II: (18) prior.
Class IV: (17) bankrupt.
Class VI: (18) inmate.

-ine^ (adjective)

Source: Latin -inus, -a, -um, sometimes through French -in, -ine.
Function: Forms adjectives with the senses: of, like, pertaining to,
characterized by.

Class II: (18) cymbal.

Class IV: (18) renard.

Class VIII: (18) nickel. (?) quartz.

Class X: X-A: (18) Hildebrand.

-ine^ (feminine suffix)

Source: French -iwe; Latin -ina; Greek -Zvt;.

Function: Forms feminine official names. These are sometimes bur-
lesqued, as in dudine.

Class VI: (16) landgrave. (18) rhinegrave.
Class IX: (18) dude.

-ine^

Source : French -ine; Latin -ina, identical in form with -ine}
Function: Forms nouns indicating: imitations, derivative products.

Class I : (18) cheese, soap.
Class II: (18) butter.

50 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

Source: An offshoot of -ine,^ representing French -me, Latin -ina.
Function: Forms names of chemicals and sometimes minerals.
Note : As a formative suffix for mineral names, -ine has been replaced
quite generally by -ite.

Class I : (18) hazel, malt, renn-.
Class II: (18) copperas.
Class VIII: (18) bismuth, cobalt.

Class X: X-A: (18) Dahl(ia), Hatchet, Hayes, Humboldt,
Klaproth, Kornerup, Lister, Scheelit.
X-C: (18) Cherok(ee).

-ice, 'ise

Source: Old French -ice (-ise) ; Latin -z7ia.
Function: Forms abstract substantives.
Note: The following words are written in full.

Class III: (16) dastardice.

Class VII: (15) niggardise, sluggardise.

-atory

The words in this list probably are formed on the analogy of such words
as laudatory, laboratory, conservatory, etc., rather than by the use of
suflSxes 'Ory, substantive and adjective.

Class I: (18) puff.

Class III: (W) ruff.

Class VII: (17) knickknack, knack.

Class IX: (W) bill-.

-oid

Source: Modern Latin -oides; Greek -octSiJs.

Function: Forms adjectives and substantives denoting: having the
form or hkeness of; like.

Class I: (18) leather, mask. (?) wool.
Class VIII: (18) gneiss, quartz. (?) zinc.
Class X: X-C: (18) Neanderthal.

"O-'polis

Source: Greek ttoXis, a city.

Function: Often used to form names or nicknames of towns or cities.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 51

Class I : (S) linen.

Class IX: (18) hub.

Class X: X-A: (S) Albert, Cubit.

'O-mania
Source: Greek fiavta.
Function: Forms substantives denoting: excessive devotion to.

Class IV: (18) rink.
Class IX: (18) jumbo.
Class X: X-D: (17) Angl-.

-o-graphy

Source : French and German -graphie; Latin -graphia, representing
Greek ypa<f>ia.

Function: Forms names, usually of descriptive sciences.

Class I: (16) sin. (18) shadow.
Class IX: (18) snob.

-o-grapMc

Source: Greek ypa<f>LK6^y or -graphy plus -ic.

Function: Forms adjectives with the senses: of, or pertaining to, the
corresponding noun in -graphy.

Class III: (18) run.
Class VIII: (?) zinc.

-ad

Source: Greek dSa (nominative -as).

Function: Forms substantives indicating: collective numerals (espe-
cially used to class chemical elements); feminine patronymics (hence
names of poems).

Class X: X-A: (18) Cromwell, Gesner, Ohm.
X-B: (18) Byron.

-o-latry
Source : Greek Xarpeta.
Function: Forms substantives indicating: worship, excessive devotion.

Class I: (18) lord.
Class II: (18) angel.
Class X: X-A: (18) Luther.
X-C: (18) Oxon.

52 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

-phobia

Source: Latin -phobia adopted from Greek <f>o/3ta.
Fiinction: Forms substantives indicating: violent hate.

Class II: (18) popery.
Class X: X-D: (18) Anglo.

-ocrat

Source: French -crate in aristocrate from Greek Kpar^s.

Function: Forms substantives denoting: a member of a ruling class.

Class I: (18) land, till.
Class II: (18) mill.

-O'Cracy

Source: French -cratie; mediaeval Latin -cratia; Greek Kparia.
Function: Forms nouns indicating: power, rule, etc.

Class I: (18) beer, laird, land. (?) shop. (S) acre, sham.
Class II: (16) angel. (18) mill, plant.
Class III: (18) club, rot.
Class VI: (18) dollar, snip.
Class IX: (18) snob.

-O'logy

Source: French -logie; mediaeval Latin -^og'ia; Greek Xoyui.
Function: Forms nouns indicating: "saying or speaking"; the names
of sciences or departments of study.

Class I: (18) dog, ghost, nose, nothing, snake, tide.

Class II: (17) angel.

Class VIII: (18) od.

Class IX: (17) pun. (18) bump.

-o-logist

Source: -o-logy plus -ist.

Function: Forms substantives indicating: a student or authority on
the matter involved.

Class I: (18) crab, louse.
Class IV: (18) crazy.
Class IX: (18) snob.
Class X:X-C: (18) London.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 53

RARE suffixes: CHIEFLY SINGLETONS

The words in the following list include, not only those which occur
but once or twice, but a considerable number of curious forms which
more strictly should be classified as blends and fantastic formations.

CLASS I

(14) fern-tickle (after lenticula?).

(15) broke-lette.

(15) grin-agog (compare stare-agog).

(16) knave-igation (after navigation).
(16) eat-nell (a glutton).

(16) lover-tine (after libertine).

(17) cock-alorum.

(17) off-ivorous (offal plus -vorous).

(17) off-tract (after abstract, extract, etc.).

(18) thousand-aire (after millionaire).
(18) malt-ase (after diatase).

(18) hen-atrice (after cockatrice as humorous feminine).

(18) need-cessity (after necessity).

(?) witti-caster (after criticaster).

(?) spinner-ule.

(?) spinner-ular.

(W) mad-d-erim.

(W) blind-ego (Spanish influence?).

(S) stink-omalee.

CLASS II

(15) pope-istry (variant of papistry).
(15) pope-estant (after Protestant).

(15) priest-ybulous (a pun on prostibulous).

(16) angel-omachy.

(16) pope-omastic.

(17) priest-ianity (after Christianity).

(18) angel-ophany.
(18) provost-orial.

(18) camel-cade (after cavalcade).
(18) gigant-icidal.

54 ENGLISH WORDS WITH NATIVE ROOTS

CLASS III

(17) rag-matical.
(17) club-b-atier.

(17) muck-ibus (humorous use of Latin ablative plural).

(18) slant-indicular (after perpendicular).
(? ) squint-efego (Spanish influence?).

CLASS IV

(15) brag-g-adocio.

( ? ) waveson (after flotsam, jetson, etc.).

CLASS VI

(17) monkey-rony (after macaroni).
(S) rack-abimus.

CLASS VII

(15) paltri-politan (perversion of metropolitan).

(15) babla-trice.

(16) babl-aminy.

(17) rumble-ante (after andante).

CLASS VIII

(18) bismuth-inite.
(?) zinc-ode.
(?) zinc-ograph.
(?) zinc-ographical.
(?) zinc-olysis.
(?) zinc-olyte.
(?) zinc-opolar.
(?) zinc-otype.

CLASS IX

(15) mumps-imus.

(16) punk-ateero (after such Spanish words as mulateero).
(18) slang-ular.

(18) slang-uage (blend with language).
(18) snob-onomer (after astronomer).
(18) punn-igram, shadow-gram.

AND WITH GREEK, LATIN, OR ROMANCE SUFFIXES 55

(18) pettifog-ulize.

(18) quizz-atorial.

(18) hub-b-opolite.

(18) hub-b-opolitan.

(18) bump-osopher (play on philosopher).

(18) dandi-zette (after French words like grisette).

(18) tipsy-ficator.

(?) stink-ibus (humorous use of Latin ablative plural).

(W) crock-anition.

(W) flap-dosha.

(S) twang-dillo.

CLASS X

X-A:

(15) Luther-ancer.

(18) Carl-ein.

(18) Luther-olatrist.

(18) Cowper-itis.

(18) Ohm-meter.

(?) Stanho(pe) -scope.
X-B:

(? ) Whisker-ando (Spanish influence).
X-C:

(18) Anglo-maniac.

(?) Tyrol-ienne.

(?) Ytter- ocerite, -ocolumbite, -ogummite,-otantalite, -ocrasite,
-ilmenite.
X-D:

(18) Cockney-iac.

(?) Whig-g-archy.

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